Aims: This study investigated the in vitro effects of water activity (a w ; 0AE85-0AE987) and temperature (10-40°C) on growth and ochratoxin A (OTA) production by two strains of Aspergillus carbonarius isolated from wine grapes from three different European countries and Israel on a synthetic grape juice medium representative of mid-veraison (total of eight strains). Methods and Results: The synthetic grape juice medium was modified with glycerol or glucose and experiments carried out for up to 56 days for growth and 25 days for OTA production. The lag phase prior to growth, growth rates and ochratoxin production were quantified. Statistical comparisons were made of all factors and multiple regression analysis used to obtain surface response curves of a w · temperature for the eight strains and optimum growth and OTA production by A. carbonarius. The lag phase increased from <1 day at 25-35°C and 0AE98 a w to >20 days at marginal temperatures and water availabilities. Generally, most A. carbonarius strains grew optimally at 30-35°C, regardless of solute used to modify a w , with no growth at <15°C. The optimum a w for growth varied from 0AE93 to 0AE987 depending on the strain, with the widest a w tolerance at 25-30°C. There was no direct relationship among growth, environmental factors and country of origin of individual strains. Optimum conditions for OTA production varied with strain. Some strains produced optimal OTA at 15-20°C and 0AE95-98 a w . The maximum OTA produced after 10 days was about 0AE6-0AE7 lg g)1 , with a mean production over all eight strains of 0AE2 lg g)1at optimum environmental conditions. Conclusions: This work demonstrates that optimum conditions for OTA production are very different from those for growth. While growth rates differed significantly between strains, integration of the OTA production data suggests possible benefits for use of the information on a regional basis. Significance and Impact of the Study: Very little detailed information has previously been available on the ecology of A. carbonarius. This knowledge is critical in the development and prediction of the risk models of contamination of grapes and grape products by this species under fluctuating and interacting environmental parameters.

The retrograde transport of Trk containing endosomes from the axon to the cell body by cytoplasmic dynein is necessary for axonal and neuronal survival. We investigated the recruitment of dynein to signaling endosomes in rat embryonic neurons and PC12 cells. We identified a novel phospho-serine on the dynein intermediate chains (IC) and we observed a time-dependent neurotrophin-stimulated increase in intermediate chain phosphorylation on this site in both cell types. Pharmacological studies, over-expression of constitutively active MEK, and an in vitro assay with recombinant proteins demonstrated that the intermediate chains are phosphorylated by the MAP kinase ERK1/2, extracellular-signal-regulated kinase, a major downstream effector of Trk. Live cell imaging with fluorescently-tagged IC mutants demonstrated that the dephospho-mimic mutants had significantly reduced co-localization with Trk and Rab7, but not a mitochondrial marker. The phosphorylated intermediate chains were enriched on immuno-affinity purified Trk containing organelles. Inhibition of ERK reduced the amount of phospho-IC and the total amount of dynein that co-purified with the signaling endosomes. In addition, inhibition of ERK1/2 reduced the motility of Rab7 and TrkB containing endosomes and the extent of their co-localization with dynein in axons. NGF-dependent survival of sympathetic neurons was significantly reduced by the over-expression of the dephospho-mimic mutant IC-1B-S80A, but not WT IC-1B, further demonstrating the functional significance of phosphorylation on this site. These results demonstrate that neurotrophin binding to Trk initiates the recruitment of cytoplasmic dynein to signaling endosomes through ERK1/2 phosphorylation of intermediate chains for their subsequent retrograde transport in axons.

The underlying causes of chronic diarrhea beginning early in life are increasingly well defined. Infectious and post-infectious enteropathies and food sensitive/allergic enteropathy account for the majority of cases. Recent attention has focused on characterizing defined entities, which cause protracted diarrhea in infants and young children. Disorders of intestinal ion transport usually present at birth following a pregnancy complicated by polyhydramnios. Intestinal mucosal biopsies show normal architect with intact villus-crypt axis. Neonatal enteropathies, by contrast, are characterized by blunting of the villi. These include microvillus inclusion disease, tufting enteropathy, autoimmune enteropathy and IPEX syndrome - and it is these conditions that are the subject of the current review.

Soil solarization was shown to be cost effective, compatible with other pest management tactics, readily integrated into standard production systems, and a valid alternative to preplant fumigation with methyl bromide under the tested conditions. Solarization using clear, photoselective, or gas-impermeable plastic was evaluated in combination with metham sodium, 1,3-dichloropropene + chloropicrin, methyl bromide + chloropicrin, pebulate, or cabbage residue. Strip solarization, applied to 20-cm-high, 0.9-m-wide beds, was conducted to achieve compatibility with standard production practices and resulted in soil temperatures 2 to 4 degrees C above those temperatures resulting when using conventional flatbed solarization. Soil temperatures were 1 to 2 degrees C higher at the edges of the raised beds, eliminating any border effects associated with solarization. Following a 40- to 55-day solarization period, the plastic was painted white and used as a production mulch for a subsequent tomato crop. The incidence of Southern blight and the density of Paratrichodorus minor and Criconemella spp. were lower (P < 0.05) in solarized plots. No differences (P < 0.05) in the incidence of Fusarium wilt and the density of nutsedge and Helicotylenchus spp. were observed between plots receiving solarization and plots fumigated with a mixture of methyl bromide + chloropicrin. The severity of root galling was lower (P < 0.05) when soil solarization was combined with 1,3-dichloropropene + chloropicrin (16.2 + 3.4 g/m(2)) and a gas-impermeable film. The incidence of bacterial wilt was not affected by soil treatments. Marketable yields in plots using various combinations of soil solarization and other tactics were similar (P < 0.05) to yields obtained in plots fumigated with methyl bromide + chloropicrin. The results were validated in several large scale field experiments conducted by commercial growers.

Pretreatment with probiotics attenuates the effects of C. rodentium infection in mice. Understanding the mechanism of these beneficial effects will aid in determining the efficacy of probiotics in preventing infection with related attaching-effacing enteric pathogens in humans.