Reducing radiation exposures to levels that are "as low as practicable" (ALAP) or "as low as reasonably achievable" (ALARA) has long been the goal of the radiation protection programs of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), its predecessor agencies, and contractor organizations. The concept had its roots in the Manhattan District where, as early as 1944, the Director of the , Health Division noted that the only safe practice for internal emitters was to avoid intake. By 1946, the ALARA philosophy had been incorporated into the radiation safety manual for the laboratory that would later become Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), and ALARA was conceptually introduced and published in 1954 into the recommendations of the National Committee on Radiation Protection, now the National Counci 1 on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP). In 1959, the first pub1 ication of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) used the phrase "as low as practicable." Since 1954, the basic policy of DOE and its predecessor organizations, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) , has been to follow applicable guidance from the Federal Radiation Council (FRC) , NCRP, and ICRP. As early as 1960, the AEC stated in its orders that "...human exposure to ionizing radiation shall be kept as low as practicable." In 1975, requirements for keeping radiation exposures as low as practicable were introduced in ERDA Manual Chapter 0524. In 1981, these requirements were included in the most recent DOE Order 5480.1, Chapter XI, and were continued in the 1988 draft revised DOE Order 5480.11. These requirements represent the formalization of a position long held and practiced by DOE and its contractors and, as such, are not a new philosophy or commitment. Although the phrase "as low as practicable" has, in recent years, been supplemented by "as low as (is) reasonably achievable," the basic concept has not changed. Indeed, although some argue that subtle differences exist between the two phrases as applied to radiation protection, ALAP and ALARA are identical in intent and may be used interchangeably. In addition, the term "optimization" was defined by the ICRP to be identical with ALAP and ALARA. Section 2.0, Administration, discusses the essential systems and tools available to management for implementing and controlling an ALARA program. This section emphasizes the value of strong management commitment and support, formal and informal communications systems, effective education and training programs in support of the program, and routine internal and external audits and appraisals of the implementation and function of the program. To ensure accountability for conduct of the ALARA program, management should delegate specific responsi bi 1 i ties and provide fol low-up. Section 3.0, Optimization, has been added to the revised manual because, in recent years, the importance of including optimization techniques in an ALARA program has greatly increased. It is now necessary...

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The questions were presented in modular form to permit personnel with expertise in each subject area to respond separately and to permit individual review of each subject module by qualified reviewers. Thirty questionnaires representing seven DOE field offices were completed and returned to PNL. The seven DOE field offices that participated in this study were: Albuquerque.

This document describes the radiation safety program at the Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL). The practices and administrative policies of this program support the principles of ALARA (to maintain radiation exposure as low as reasonably achievable). This document also describes a program to establish safety goals at PNL to help ensure that operations are conducted according to ALARA principles .

The Office of Radiation Programs of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has requested that the Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL)(a) provide background information on various source categories of radionuclide emissions to the atmosphere. This report provides a general description and reported emissions for eight low-level radioactive source categories, including facilities that are licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and AgreemE!nt States, and non-Department of Energy (DOE) federal facilities. (b) The eight categories of low-level radioactive source facilities covered by this report are: research and test reactors, accelerators, the radiopharmaceutical industry, source manufacturers, medical facilities, laboratories, naval shipyards, and low-level commercial waste disposal sites. Under each category five elements are addressed: a general description, a facility and process description, the emission control systems, a site description, and the radionuclides released to air (from routine operations).