The respiratory epithelium is a physical and functional barrier actively involved in the clearance of environmental agents. The alveolar compartment is lined with membranous pneumocytes, known as type I alveolar epithelial cells (AEC I), and granular pneumocytes, type II alveolar epithelial cells (AEC II). AEC II are responsible for epithelial reparation upon injury and ion transport and are very active immunologically, contributing to lung defense by secreting antimicrobial factors. AEC II also secrete a broad variety of factors, such as cytokines and chemokines, involved in activation and differentiation of immune cells and are able to present antigen to specific T cells. Another cell type important in lung defense is the pulmonary macrophage (PuM). Considering the architecture of the alveoli, a good communication between the external and the internal compartments is crucial to mount effective responses. Our hypothesis is that being in the interface, AEC may play an important role in transmitting signals from the external to the internal compartment and in modulating the activity of PuM. For this, we collected supernatants from AEC unstimulated or stimulated in vitro with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). These AEC-conditioned media were used in various setups to test for the effects on a number of macrophage functions: (i) migration, (ii) phagocytosis and intracellular control of bacterial growth, and (iii) phenotypic changes and morphology. Finally, we tested the direct effect of AEC-conditioned media on bacterial growth. We found that AEC-secreted factors had a dual effect, on one hand controlling bacterial growth and on the other hand increasing macrophage activity.

Macrophages and dendritic cells have been recognized as key players in the defense against mycobacterial infection. However, more recently, other cells in the lungs such as alveolar epithelial cells (AEC) have been found to play important roles in the defense and pathogenesis of infection. In the present study we first compared AEC with pulmonary macrophages (PuM) isolated from mice in their ability to internalize and control Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) growth and their capacity as APCs. AEC were able to internalize and control bacterial growth as well as present antigen to primed T cells. Secondly, we compared both cell types in their capacity to secrete cytokines and chemokines upon stimulation with various molecules including mycobacterial products. Activated PuM and AEC displayed different patterns of secretion. Finally, we analyzed the profile of response of AEC to diverse stimuli. AEC responded to both microbial and internal stimuli exemplified by TLR ligands and IFNs, respectively. The response included synthesis by AEC of several factors, known to have various effects in other cells. Interestingly, TNF could stimulate the production of CCL2/MCP-1. Since MCP-1 plays a role in the recruitment of monocytes and macrophages to sites of infection and macrophages are the main producers of TNF, we speculate that both cell types can stimulate each other. Also, another cell-cell interaction was suggested when IFNs (produced mainly by lymphocytes) were able to induce expression of chemokines (IP-10 and RANTES) by AEC involved in the recruitment of circulating lymphocytes to areas of injury, inflammation, or viral infection. In the current paper we confirm previous data on the capacity of AEC regarding internalization of mycobacteria and their role as APC, and extend the knowledge of AEC as a multifunctional cell type by assessing the secretion of a broad array of factors in response to several different types of stimuli.

Dietary fish oil has immunomodulatory effects that are mediated in part by its effects on cytokines. Secretion of the inflammatory and the anti-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin (IL)-10 by murine resident peritoneal macrophages was monitored after ex vivo stimulation with lipopolysaccharide. Macrophages were obtained from mice fed a corn oil diet containing 200 g/kg corn oil or a fish oil diet containing 180 g/kg fish oil and 20 g/kg corn oil. Dietary fish oil increased secretion of the proinflammatory cytokine, TNF, but decreased secretion of the anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-10. The cytokines appeared in the medium after 1.5 h and peaked at 6-12 h. Neutralizing antibodies against TNF and IL-10 had little effect on secretion of the other cytokine, indicating that the effects of fish oil on TNF and IL-10 secretion by these cells are independent of one another. Furthermore, although inhibiting prostaglandin production enhanced TNF secretion by macrophages from mice fed the corn oil diet, it did not affect IL-10 secretion by macrophages in this group. Blocking leukotriene B(4) production also did not affect IL-10 secretion in macrophages from mice fed a nonpurified diet. These results demonstrate that fish oil has an overall pro-inflammatory effect given its effects on secretion of both inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines by resident peritoneal macrophages.