Summary Chronic antigenic stimulation leads to gradual accumulation of late‐differentiated, antigen‐specific, oligoclonal T cells, particularly within the CD8+ T‐cell compartment. They are characterized by critically shortened telomeres, loss of CD28 and/or gain of CD57 expression and are defined as either CD8+CD28− or CD8+CD57+ T lymphocytes. There is growing evidence that the CD8+CD28− (CD8+CD57+) T‐cell population plays a significant role in various diseases or conditions, associated with chronic immune activation such as cancer, chronic intracellular infections, chronic alcoholism, some chronic pulmonary diseases, autoimmune diseases, allogeneic transplantation, as well as has a great influence on age‐related changes in the immune system status. CD8+CD28− (CD8+CD57+) T‐cell population is heterogeneous and composed of various functionally competing (cytotoxic and immunosuppressive) subsets thus the overall effect of CD8+CD28− (CD8+CD57+) T‐cell‐mediated immunity depends on the predominance of a particular subset. Many articles claim that CD8+CD28− (CD8+CD57+) T cells have lost their proliferative capacity during process of replicative senescence triggered by repeated antigenic stimulation. However recent data indicate that CD8+CD28− (CD8+CD57+) T cells can transiently up‐regulate telomerase activity and proliferate under certain stimulation conditions. Similarly, conflicting data is provided regarding CD8+CD28− (CD8+CD57+) T‐cell sensitivity to apoptosis, finally leading to the conclusion that this T‐cell population is also heterogeneous in terms of its apoptotic potential. This review provides a comprehensive approach to the CD8+CD28− (CD8+CD57+) T‐cell population: we describe in detail its origins, molecular and functional characteristics, subsets, role in various diseases or conditions, associated with persistent antigenic stimulation.

Scientific discoveries that provide strong evidence of antitumor effects in preclinical models often encounter significant delays before being tested in patients with cancer. While some of these delays have a scientific basis, others do not. We need to do better. Innovative strategies need to move into early stage clinical trials as quickly as it is safe, and if successful, these therapies should efficiently obtain regulatory approval and widespread clinical application. In late 2009 and 2010 the Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer (SITC), convened an "Immunotherapy Summit" with representatives from immunotherapy organizations representing Europe, Japan, China and North America to discuss collaborations to improve development and delivery of cancer immunotherapy. One of the concepts raised by SITC and defined as critical by all parties was the need to identify hurdles that impede effective translation of cancer immunotherapy. With consensus on these hurdles, international working groups could be developed to make recommendations vetted by the participating organizations. These recommendations could then be considered by regulatory bodies, governmental and private funding agencies, pharmaceutical companies and academic institutions to facilitate changes necessary to accelerate clinical translation of novel immune-based cancer therapies. The critical hurdles identified by representatives of the collaborating organizations, now organized as the World Immunotherapy Council, are presented and discussed in this report. Some of the identified hurdles impede all investigators; others hinder investigators only in certain regions or institutions or are more relevant to specific types of immunotherapy or first-in-humans studies. Each of these hurdles can significantly delay clinical translation of promising advances in immunotherapy yet if overcome, have the potential to improve outcomes of patients with cancer.

Purpose of this study was to evaluate the lymphocyte populations' distribution changes in peripheral blood of patients with primary Sjögren's syndrome (pSS). Lymphocyte populations' distribution changes in peripheral blood of pSS patients were investigated in 52 patients with pSS and in 28 healthy controls by flow cytometry. We found decreased absolute count of CD3+ T cell population in pSS patients. Analysis of CD4+ T cell population showed significant proportion and absolute count differences in pSS patient's blood with SSA/SSB antibodies (Abs) in comparison to controls. No significant differences were observed analyzing CD4+ and CD8+ Treg subpopulation. Proportion and absolute counts of Th17 cells were significantly lower in pSS patient's blood. Absolute counts of CD8+ T cells were significantly lower in pSS patients in comparison to controls and also impaired proportion and absolute counts of CD8+ subpopulations according to CD27+ and CD57+ were observed. Absolute counts of NKT and NK cells were decreased in pSS with Abs. B cells proportion was increased only in blood of pSS with Abs. Lymphocyte distribution impairment can be due to genetically determined lymphopenia or lymphocyte migration from periphery to inflammatory sites or/and increased susceptibility to apoptosis.

In this work, we have investigated the feasibility of sub-microsecond range irreversible electroporation (IRE) with and without calcium electroporation in vivo. As a model, BALB/C mice were used and bioluminescent SP2/0 myeloma tumor models were developed. Tumors were treated with two separate pulsed electric field (PEF) pulsing protocols PEF1: 12 kV/cm × 200 ns × 500 (0.006 J/pulse) and PEF2: 12 kV/cm × 500 ns × 500 (0.015 J/pulse), which were delivered with and without Ca2+ (168 mM) using parallel plate electrodes at a repetition frequency of 100 Hz. Both PEF1 and PEF2 treatments reduced tumor growth and prolonged the life span of the mice, however, the PEF2 protocol was more efficient. The delay in tumor renewal was the biggest when a combination of IRE with calcium electroporation was used, however, we did not obtain significant differences in the final mouse survival compared to PEF2 alone. Anti-tumor immune responses were also investigated after treatment with PEF2 and PEF2+Ca. In both cases the treated mice had enlarged spleens and increased spleen T cell numbers, lower percentages of suppressor cell subsets (conventional CD4+CD25+ Treg, CD4+CD25−DX5+ Tr1, CD8+DX5+, CD4+CD28−, CD8+CD28−), changed proportions of Tcm and Tef/Tem T cells in the spleen and increased amount of tumor cell specific antibodies in the sera. The treatment based on IRE was effective against primary tumors, destroyed the tumor microenvironment and induced an anti-tumor immune response, however, it was not sufficient for complete control of tumor metastasis.