Previous models of communications are discussed, and a new model of communications is presented. The new model views the communications process as composed of separate steps or functions performed by the participants in the process. The dynamic nature of the communication process and the need to view the process as transcending space and time are discussed. The implications of this model are addressed and the model evaluated using criteria established by prior writers.MODELS WIIICII AHE WIDELY USED in all phases of scientific investigation are generally seen as simplifying devices meant to reduce the real world to manageable proportions (Level and Galle, 1980). A model is anything that is used to represent anything else (Buzzell,1964). The various representations used by the modeler may be selected to fit specific intentions and will include anything that the modeler considers to be significant. Insignificant factors and variables are excluded in order to permit concentration on the measurement and control of the significant ones.Because the modeler is selective as to what should be included in the model, any model is a partial representation of a small piece of reality (Level and Gaile, 1980; Bungle, 1973).Modeling is a creative activity; while constructing the model, the modeler is free to draw from any number of theories and is free to speculate on the processes that could produce the observed facts (Lave and Niarch, 1975;Bunge, 1973).Models are considered to perform one or more of four functions. These may be described as organizing, heuristic, predictive, and measurement functions (Deutsch, 1952). Behnke, however, maintains that the main purpose of any model is to seek the optimization of the process of inquiry (1970).Models have been classified into four categories based on the method of representation. These categories are iconic, verbal-pictorial, analogues, and symbolic (Smith, 1962). McBride (1980) also uses four categories, but his are based on the paradigms which gave rise to each particular i-nodel. I~icBride's categories are: discrete communication system, psychosociological, cultural or anthropological, and institutional as inspired by political sciences. The present paper accepts Srnitlr's taxonomy and is concerned with the verbalpictorial model.-The authors wish to express their thanks to Jyoti N. Prasad. Western Illinois University. for his assistance and critical review of an early version of this article.

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This paper examines distortion of information by subordinates and several variables related to distortion. Methodology and results are presented for distortion of upward information leadership roles and accuracy in downward communication. The evidence strongly suggests that certain activities of the superior have an important bearing upon subordinate distortion of information.THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COMMUNICATION to the management of organizations is reflected in both the literature and the common sense of managers. Social organization without communication is impossible. One of the more widely-known writers in organization theory, Herbert A. Simon, reflects on the importance of communication to social organization in the following:Communication may be formally defined as any process whereby decisional premises are transmitted from one member of an organization to another. It is obvious that without communication there can be no organization, for there is no possibility then of the group influencing the behavior of the individual. 1 In a broad sense, Simon is arguing that the principal activity of organization is communication. Communication pervades the organizational activity of man; or as C. I. Barnard suggests, &dquo;the first executive function is to develop and maintain a system of communication. &dquo;2 The achievement of favorable conditions through which communication may take place would seem critical to the professional manager and his organizational activities.To aid the manager in the organizational environment, the study and investigation of communication has taken perhaps as many different approaches as there are authors. One of the more common of various approaches to the study of organization interactions is through the directional flow of communication. Many studies have dealt with communication problems based on the direction of movement, i.e., upward, downward, or horizontal.' While the importance of upward communication is

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