The purpose of this study was to determine if breakfast macronutrient composition improved thermic effect of feeding (TEF) and appetite after a one-week adaptation in young women who habitually skip breakfast. A randomized, controlled study was conducted in females (24.1 ± 2 years), who skip breakfast (≥5 times/week). Participants were placed into one of three groups for eight days (n = 8 per group): breakfast skipping (SKP; no breakfast), carbohydrate (CHO; 351 kcal; 59 g CHO, 10 g PRO, 8 g fat) or protein (PRO; 350 kcal; 39 g CHO, 30 g PRO, 8 g fat). On days 1 (D1) and 8 (D8), TEF, substrate oxidation, appetite and blood glucose were measured. PRO had higher (p < 0.05) TEF compared to SKP and CHO on D1 and D8, with PRO having 29% higher TEF than CHO on D8. On D1, PRO had 30.6% higher fat oxidation than CHO and on D8, PRO had 40.6% higher fat oxidation than CHO. SKP had higher (p < 0.05) fat oxidation on D1 and D8 compared to PRO and CHO. There was an interaction (p < 0.0001) of time and breakfast on appetite response. In addition, CHO had a significant increase (p < 0.05) in PP hunger response on D8 vs. D1. CHO and PRO had similar PP (postprandial) glucose responses on D1 and D8. Consumption of PRO breakfast for 8 days increased TEF compared to CHO and SKP, while consumption of CHO for one week increased PP hunger response.

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Currently, there is debate as to what the macronutrient composition of breakfast should be for optimal health. Studies have shown that subjects who eat a breakfast high in protein (PRO) stay fuller throughout day compared to subjects who consumed a carbohydrate (CHO)‐based breakfast. The objective of this study was to determine if protein quality (animal v plant) at breakfast makes a difference in postprandial (pp) satiety and glucose response when compared to a standard CHO‐based breakfast. Normal weight women (n=7) ages 18‐36 were provided 3 isocaloric breakfasts: animal PRO (30% PRO, 40% CHO, 30% fat), plant PRO (30% PRO, 45% CHO, 30% fat), and CHO‐based (20% PRO, 50% CHO, 30% fat). Breakfasts were consumed in a randomized, crossover design with at least a 1‐week washout period between each breakfast. Satiety and glucose measurements were taken at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120‐min postprandial. Subjects preferred (P < 0.05) the taste and appearance of the animal PRO over the plant PRO and CHO‐based breakfasts and the plant PRO was preferred (P < 0.05) to the CHO‐based breakfast. There was no significant difference in satiety response to the 3 breakfasts over the 2‐hour pp period. In addition, there was no significant difference in glucose response over the 2‐hour pp period. However, subjects had a lower peak in pp glucose at 30 min after consuming animal PRO (36.2%) compared to plant PRO (44%) and CHO‐based (47.8%). Although there is no difference in satiety response, these data suggest that consumption of an animal PRO breakfast results in a lower pp glucose response. Funded by University of Arkansas Honors Grant.

Early adulthood is a vulnerable time for weight gain among women. The average weight gain for women between the ages of 20 and 30 is 12‐25 lbs. A primary contributor to obesity is an increase in unhealthy eating habits, such as skipping breakfast, which is strongly associated with obesity. The objective of this pilot study was to determine if breakfast consumption and breakfast composition improve energy metabolism in overweight/obese women (ages 18‐36) who skip breakfast. Subjects were placed into one of three groups: breakfast skipping (SKP; n=4), carbohydrate (CHO; n=3) or protein (PRO; n=5) and were instructed to either continue skipping breakfast or consume a CHO or PRO breakfast for 7 days. All food was provided. On days 1 and 7 energy expenditure (EE), glucose and satiety were measured at 0, 15, 30, 60, 90 and 120 min postprandial (pp). Consuming breakfast decreased (P < 0.01) hunger and the desire to eat and increased fullness compared to SKP. There was a trend for PRO to be more satiating than CHO. Consumption of PRO decreased (P < 0.01) the desire for sweet. There was no difference in pp glucose response between PRO and CHO. Consuming breakfast for one week increased (P < 0.05) pp energy metabolism and PRO had higher (P < 0.05) pp energy metabolism compared to CHO and SKP. There was no change in REE. Taken together, this preliminary data suggests that eating breakfast decreases pp hunger and increases pp energy metabolism compared to breakfast skipping, however the effects seem to be greater when a PRO versus a CHO breakfast is consumed. Funded by Arkansas SURF grant.