Summary1. Evidence-based policy requires researchers to provide the answers to ecological questions that are of interest to policy makers. To find out what those questions are in the UK, representatives from 28 organizations involved in policy, together with scientists from 10 academic institutions, were asked to generate a list of questions from their organizations. 2. During a 2-day workshop the initial list of 1003 questions generated from consulting at least 654 policy makers and academics was used as a basis for generating a short list of 100 questions of significant policy relevance. Short-listing was decided on the basis of the preferences of the representatives from the policy-led organizations. 3. The areas covered included most major issues of environmental concern in the UK, including agriculture, marine fisheries, climate change, ecosystem function and land management. 4. The most striking outcome was the preference for general questions rather than narrow ones. The reason is that policy is driven by broad issues rather than specific ones. In contrast, scientists are frequently best equipped to answer specific questions. This means that it may be necessary to extract the underpinning specific question before researchers can proceed. Synthesis and applications.Greater communication between policy makers and scientists is required in order to ensure that applied ecologists are dealing with issues in a way that can feed into policy. It is particularly important that applied ecologists emphasize the generic value of their work wherever possible.

Summary1. Ecosystem services are the benefits humans obtain from ecosystems. The importance of research into ecosystem services has been widely recognized, and rapid progress is being made. However, the prevailing approach to quantifying ecosystem services is still based on static analyses and single services, ignoring system dynamics, uncertainty and feedbacks. This is not only partly due to a lack of mechanistic understanding of processes and a dearth of empirical data, but also due to a failure to engage fully with the interdisciplinarity of the problem. 2. We argue that there is a tendency to ignore the feedbacks between and within both social and ecological systems, and a lack of explicit consideration of uncertainty. Metrics need to be developed that can predict thresholds, which requires strong linkages to underlying processes, while the development of policy for management of ecosystem services needs to be based on a broader understanding of value and drivers of human well-being. 3. We highlight the complexities, gaps in current knowledge and research, and the potentially promising avenues for future investigation in four priority research areas: agendas, processes, metrics and uncertainty. 4. Synthesis and applications. The research interest in the field of ecosystem services is rapidly expanding, and can contribute significantly to the sustainable management of natural resources. However, a narrow disciplinary approach, or an approach which does not consider feedbacks within and between ecological and social systems, has the potential to produce dangerously misleading policy recommendations. In contrast, if we explicitly acknowledge and address uncertainties and complexities in the provision of ecosystem services, progress may appear slower but our models will be substantially more robust and informative about the effects of environmental change.

The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) naphthalene, acenaphthylene, acenaphthene, fluorene, fluoranthene, pyrene, benzo[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, ideno[1,2,3,-cd]-pyrene, dibenz[a,h]anthracene, benzo[g,h,i]perylene and the polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 8, 18, 28, 29, 31, 52, 77, 101, 105, 114, 118, 123, 126, 128, 138, 141, 149, 153, 156, 157, 163, 169, 170, 171, 180, 183, 187, 189, 194, 199, 201, 206, and 209 were measured in -200 rural soils across Great Britain (GB). Dominance of soil PAH profiles by heavier compounds (4-6 rings) provided initial evidence for the importance of source in governing soil PAH concentrations. No relationship was found between soil organic matter (SOM) and sum concentration of total and "heavy" PAHs, although there was a weak positive relationship with lighter compounds. A spatial statistical technique showed that highest soil PAH concentrations were usually found close to industrial/urban centers where presumably source intensity is highest. PCBs clustered into seven groups, five of which contained a single "dioxin like" PCB, one contained lighter congeners (2-4 chlorines), and one contained heavy congeners (5-10 chlorines). Linear regressions with SOM explained up to 24.3% of variation for the sum concentration of penta- to deca- congeners, but <1% for the lighter congener groups. No significant relationships were found with latitude. Spatial statistical techniques showed clusters of high soil PCB concentrations predominantly in west and south east GB, either associated with urbanized areas or on the West coast.

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The novel application of magic angle spinning 1 H NMR spectroscopy, coupled with pattern recognition techniques, has identified biochemical changes in lipid and glutamate metabolism that precede classical nephrotoxicity. These changes occurred in the bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus) after chronic dosing, at a low level of exposure and at a renal Cd 2+ concentration (8.4 W Wg/g dry wt) that was nearly two orders of magnitude below the WHO critical organ concentration (200 W Wg/g wet wt). These early stage effects of Cd 2+ on the biochemistry of renal tissue may reflect adaptation mechanisms to the toxic insult or the preliminary stages of the toxicological cascade. ß