Redox transitions of uranium [from U(VI) to U(IV)] in low-temperature sediments govern the mobility of uranium in the environment and the accumulation of uranium in ore bodies, and inform our understanding of Earth's geochemical history. The molecular-scale mechanistic pathways of these transitions determine the U(IV) products formed, thus influencing uranium isotope fractionation, reoxidation, and transport in sediments. Studies that improve our understanding of these pathways have the potential to substantially advance process understanding across a number of earth sciences disciplines. Detailed mechanistic information regarding uranium redox transitions in field sediments is largely nonexistent, owing to the difficulty of directly observing molecular-scale processes in the subsurface and the compositional/physical complexity of subsurface systems. Here, we present results from an in situ study of uranium redox transitions occurring in aquifer sediments under sulfate-reducing conditions. Based on molecular-scale spectroscopic, pore-scale geochemical, and macroscale aqueous evidence, we propose a biotic-abiotic transition pathway in which biomass-hosted mackinawite (FeS) is an electron source to reduce U(VI) to U(IV), which subsequently reacts with biomass to produce monomeric U(IV) species. A species resembling nanoscale uraninite is also present, implying the operation of at least two redox transition pathways. The presence of multiple pathways in low-temperature sediments unifies apparently contrasting prior observations and helps to explain sustained uranium reduction under disparate biogeochemical conditions. These findings have direct implications for our understanding of uranium bioremediation, ore formation, and global geochemical processes. metal reduction | roll front | sulfate reduction | sulfide | bioreduction

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The long-term stability of biogenic uraninite with respect to oxidative dissolution is pivotal to the success of in situ bioreduction strategies for the subsurface remediation of uranium legacies. Batch and flow-through dissolution experiments were conducted along with spectroscopic analyses to compare biogenic uraninite nanoparticles obtained from Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 and chemogenic UO 2.00 with respect to their equilibrium solubility, dissolution mechanisms, and dissolution kinetics in water of varied oxygen and carbonate concentrations. Both materials exhibited a similar intrinsic solubility of $10 À8 M under reducing conditions. The two materials had comparable dissolution rates under anoxic as well as oxidizing conditions, consistent with structural bulk homology of biogenic and stoichiometric uraninite. Carbonate reversibly promoted uraninite dissolution under both moderately oxidizing and reducing conditions, and the biogenic material yielded higher surface areanormalized dissolution rates than the chemogenic. This difference is in accordance with the higher proportion of U(V) detected on the biogenic uraninite surface by means of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Reasonable sources of a stable U(V)-bearing intermediate phase are discussed. The observed increase of the dissolution rates can be explained by carbonate complexation of U(V) facilitating the detachment of U(V) from the uraninite surface. The fraction of surface-associated U(VI) increased with dissolved oxygen concentration. Simultaneously, X-ray absorption spectra showed conversion of the bulk from UO 2.0 to UO 2+x . In equilibrium with air, combined spectroscopic results support the formation of a near-surface layer of approximate composition UO 2.25 (U 4 O 9 ) coated by an outer layer of U(VI). This result is in accordance with flowthrough dissolution experiments that indicate control of the dissolution rate of surface-oxidized uraninite by the solubility of metaschoepite under the tested conditions. Although U(V) has been observed in electrochemical studies on the dissolution of spent nuclear fuel, this is the first investigation that demonstrates the formation of a stable U(V) intermediate phase on the surface of submicron-sized uraninite particles suspended in aqueous solutions.

The chemical stability of biogenic UO 2 , a nanoparticulate product of environmental bioremediation, may be impacted by the particles' surface free energy, structural defects, and compositional variability in analogy to abiotic UO 2+x (0 e x e 0.25). This study quantifies and compares intrinsic solubility and dissolution rate constants of biogenic nano-UO 2 and synthetic bulk UO 2.00 , taking molecular-scale structure into account. Rates were determined under anoxic conditions as a function of pH and dissolved inorganic carbon in continuous-flow experiments. The dissolution rates of biogenic and synthetic UO 2 solids were lowest at near neutral pH and increased with decreasing pH. Similar surface area-normalized rates of biogenic and synthetic UO 2 suggest comparable reactive surface site densities. This finding is consistent with the identified structural homology of biogenic UO 2 and stoichiometric UO 2.00 . Compared to carbonate-free anoxic conditions, dissolved inorganic carbon accelerated the dissolution rate of biogenic UO 2 by 3 orders of magnitude. This phenomenon suggests continuous surface oxidation of U(IV) to U(VI), with detachment of U(VI) as the rate-determining step in dissolution. Although reducing conditions were maintained throughout the experiments, the UO 2 surface can be oxidized by water and radiogenic oxidants. Even in anoxic aquifers, UO 2 dissolution may be controlled by surface U(VI) rather than U(IV) phases.