Throughout the twentieth century, otologic surgery has been transformed by a number of technologic advances in visualization, instrumentation, and intraoperative and post-operative monitoring. Developments such as the stereomicroscope and surgical drill have addressed challenges inherent in a constrained operative field with limited viewing angles. Schuknecht 1 noted that otologic surgery poses particular challenges in requiring viewing of an instrument's tip along its axis. Although surgeons possess greater manual dexterity than nonsurgeons, human limitations in dexterity 2 and tactile sensitivity 3 continue to complicate and constrain microsurgical procedures.Recent developments in computers and robotics promise to overcome natural human limitations in both dexterity (tremor, jerk, drift, and overshoot) 4 and tactile sensitivity. Thus, robotic devices offer the possibility of extending human performance to permit fine manipulation tasks that are normally considered difficult or impossible. By enhancing surgical dexterity, robotic assist devices might improve surgical outcomes and enable new procedures currently considered unfeasible. In otologic surgery, robotic devices have already been developed for estimation of stapes footplate thickness 5 and autonomous fenestration of the stapes footplate with a microdrill. 6 Various designs of robotic assist devices exist for augmenting human task performance. "Extenders" are robotic extensions of the operator's body and are used for tasks beyond normal human strength, such as handling heavy cargo and ma-

The observed differences in task performance may contribute to an understanding of maneuvers that increase the risk of inadequate prosthesis placement and cochlear trauma-factors likely responsible for variable hearing results with strapedotomy.

Abstract. This paper reports the development of a full-scale instrumented model of the human ear that permits quantitative evaluation of the utility of a microsurgical assistant robot in the surgical procedure of stapedotomy.

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