Zebrafish is a powerful model for forward genetics. Reverse genetic approaches are limited by the time required to generate stable mutant lines. We describe a system for gene knockout that consistently produces null phenotypes in G0 zebrafish. Yolk injection of sets of four CRISPR/Cas9 ribonucleoprotein complexes redundantly targeting a single gene recapitulated germline-transmitted knockout phenotypes in >90% of G0 embryos for each of 8 test genes. Early embryonic (6 hpf) and stable adult phenotypes were produced. Simultaneous multi-gene knockout was feasible but associated with toxicity in some cases. To facilitate use, we generated a lookup table of four-guide sets for 21,386 zebrafish genes and validated several. Using this resource, we targeted 50 cardiomyocyte transcriptional regulators and uncovered a role of zbtb16a in cardiac development. This system provides a platform for rapid screening of genes of interest in development, physiology, and disease models in zebrafish.

Procoagulant activity on tumor cells can enhance their ability to spread via the circulation to colonize distant organs. Toward defining the relative importance of the main host responses to coagulation for hematogenous metastasis, we examined lung metastases after intravenous injection of melanoma cells in Nf-E2 ؊/؊ mice, which have virtually no circulating platelets; Par4 ؊/؊ mice, which have platelets that fail to respond to thrombin; Par1 and Par2 ؊/؊ mice, which have markedly attenuated endothelial responses to coagulation proteases; and Fib ؊/؊ mice, which lack fibrinogen. In a severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) background, median lung tumor count in Nf-E2 ؊/؊ , Par4 ؊/؊ , and Fib ؊/؊ mice was 6%, 14%, and 24% of wild type, respectively; total tumor burden was only 4%, 9%, and 3% of wild type, respectively. Similar results were seen in a syngeneic C57BL6 background. By contrast, deficiencies of protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1) or PAR2 did not provide protection. These results provide strong genetic evidence that platelets play a key role in hematogenous metastasis and contribute to this process by both thrombin-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Importantly, PAR4 heterozygosity conferred some protection against metastasis in this model. IntroductionSeveral critical steps must be fulfilled to enable tumor cells to metastasize. The success of one such step, tissue colonization by tumor cells moving through the vascular compartment (hematogenous metastasis), is more likely if the tumor cell can activate the coagulation cascade. Such tumor cell procoagulant activity has been correlated with malignant progression of several types of human cancer. [1][2][3][4][5][6] In mouse models, introduction of tissue factor, the main trigger for coagulation, into nonmetastatic cell lines can confer efficient hematogenous metastasis, 7,8 and inhibitors of coagulation can inhibit hematogenous metastasis. [8][9][10][11][12] It seems likely that procoagulant activity promotes hematogenous metastasis at least in part by helping tumor cells to lodge in the microvasculature 9,10 so as to allow diapedesis into tissue 13 or intravascular growth of secondary tumors. 14 This might be accomplished by a number of host responses to coagulation proteases (Figure 1). Platelets can act as bridges between endothelial cells and lymphocytes 15 or monocytes, 16 and thrombin activation of platelets can enhance this function. 16 Thus, coagulation proteases might activate platelets such that they bind tumor cells to the vessel wall. Platelet activation and fibrin formation in response to coagulation proteases formed on the tumor cell surface might also promote its incorporation into microthrombi that lodge in the microvasculature. 13 Alternatively, endothelial cells respond to coagulation proteases by displaying a variety of adhesion molecules, 17 and this activity might tether tumor cells or tumor cell-platelet complexes to the vessel wall (Figure 1). We used knock-out mice to examine the relative importance of platelets, platelet a...

Maintenance of vascular integrity is critical for homeostasis, and temporally and spatially regulated vascular leak is a central feature of inflammation. Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) can regulate endothelial barrier function, but the sources of the S1P that provide this activity in vivo and its importance in modulating different inflammatory responses are unknown. We report here that mutant mice engineered to selectively lack S1P in plasma displayed increased vascular leak and impaired survival after anaphylaxis, administration of platelet-activating factor (PAF) or histamine, and exposure to related inflammatory challenges. Increased leak was associated with increased interendothelial cell gaps in venules and was reversed by transfusion with wild-type erythrocytes (which restored plasma S1P levels) and by acute treatment with an agonist for the S1P receptor 1 (S1pr1). S1pr1 agonist did not protect wild-type mice from PAF-induced leak, consistent with plasma S1P levels being sufficient for S1pr1 activation in wild-type mice. However, an agonist for another endothelial cell G i -coupled receptor, Par2, did protect wild-type mice from PAF-induced vascular leak, and systemic treatment with pertussis toxin prevented rescue by Par2 agonist and sensitized wild-type mice to leak-inducing stimuli in a manner that resembled the loss of plasma S1P. Our results suggest that the blood communicates with blood vessels via plasma S1P to maintain vascular integrity and regulate vascular leak. This pathway prevents lethal responses to leak-inducing mediators in mouse models. IntroductionSphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), a lipid phosphate produced in the course of sphingosine metabolism in all cell types (1), promotes endothelial cell spreading and barrier function in cell culture (2-5) and in vivo (6, 7). S1P can regulate cell behavior via 5 GPCRs, designated S1P receptor 1 (S1pr1) through S1pr5 (also known as S1P 1 -S1P 5 ) (1,4,8). Models of receptor-dependent roles for S1P in regulating endothelial barrier function have focused on S1P produced by the endothelial cells themselves, casting S1P as a downstream, autocrine/paracrine mediator of the barrier-protective effects of other agents such as activated protein C (9, 10) and angiopoietin (7). However, S1P is present at high concentrations in plasma (11), and the importance of this source of S1P in regulating vascular integrity has not been examined. In addition, GPCR-independent S1P signaling mechanisms and cell-autonomous metabolic effects of disrupting sphingosine conversion to S1P have been reported and may affect vascular integrity (1-5, 7, 12, 13). Central to understanding the physiological roles of S1P in regulating blood vessel function are identification of the sources of S1P that are important for barrier protection in vivo as well as determination of the importance of S1P from blood acting in trans on endothelial cells by receptor-dependent mechanisms ver-

Summary We report an unexpected role for protease signaling in neural tube closure and formation of the central nervous system. Mouse embryos lacking protease-activated receptor 1 and 2 showed defective hindbrain and posterior neuropore closure and developed exencephaly and spina bifida, important human congenital anomalies. Par1 and Par2 were expressed in surface ectoderm, Par2 selectively along the line of closure. Ablation of Gi/z and Rac1 function in these Par2-expressing cells disrupted neural tube closure, further implicating G protein-coupled receptors and identifying a likely effector pathway. Cluster analysis of protease and Par2 expression patterns revealed a group of membrane-tethered proteases often co-expressed with Par2. Among these, matriptase activated Par2 with picomolar potency, and hepsin and prostasin activated matriptase. Together, our results suggest a role for protease-activated receptor signaling in neural tube closure and identify a local protease network that may trigger Par2 signaling and monitor and regulate epithelial integrity in this context.

Endotoxemia is often associated with extreme inflammatory responses and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Protease-activated receptors (PARs) mediate cellular responses to coagulation proteases, including platelet activation and endothelial cell reactions predicted to promote inflammation. These observations suggested that PAR activation by coagulation proteases generated in the setting of endotoxemia might promote platelet activation, leukocyte-mediated endothelial injury, tissue damage, and death. Toward testing these hypotheses, we examined the effect of PAR deficiencies that ablate platelet and endothelial activation by coagulation proteases in a mouse endotoxemia model. Although coagulation was activated as measured by thrombin-antithrombin (TAT) production and antithrombin III (ATIII) depletion, Par1(-/-), Par2(-/-), Par4(-/-), Par2(-/-):Par4(-/-), and Par1(-/-):Par2(-/-) mice all failed to show improved survival or decreased cytokine responses after endotoxin challenge compared with wild type. Thus, our results fail to support a necessary role for PARs in linking coagulation to inflammation or death in this model. Interestingly, endotoxin-induced thrombocytopenia was not diminished in Par4(-/-) mice. Thus, a mechanism independent of platelet activation by thrombin was sufficient to cause thrombocytopenia in our model. These results raise the possibility that decreases in platelet count in the setting of sepsis may not be caused by disseminated intravascular coagulation but instead report on a sometimes parallel but independent process.