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The goal of this study is to provide an overview of demand response (DR) technologies, including standards and end uses, in the United States and describe resource characteristics and the attributes of 14 specific DR resources in the U.S. commercial, residential, and industrial sectors. The attributes reviewed for the end uses being considered are response frequency, response time, the need for and impacts of energy pre-or recharge, the cost of enabling a resource to respond to a load-curtailment signal, and the magnitude of load curtailment in a given resource. We also describe controls and communications technologies that can enable end uses to participate in DR programs. The characterization was initially developed as a foundational work to quantify hourly availability of DR resources from the selected end uses followed by a multi-laboratory effort that quantified DR's value within the Western Interconnection a . Published 2015. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

This report is one of a series stemming from the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Demand Response and Energy Storage Integration Study. This study is a multi-national-laboratory effort to assess the potential value of demand response (DR) and energy storage to electricity systems with different penetration levels of variable renewable resources and to improve our understanding of associated markets and institutions. This study was originated, sponsored, and managed jointly by the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy and the Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability.Grid modernization and technological advances are enabling resources, such as DR and energy storage, to support a wider array of electric power system operations. Historically, thermal generators and hydropower in combination with transmission and distribution assets have been adequate to serve customer loads reliably and with sufficient power quality, even as variable renewable generation like wind and solar power become a larger part of the national energy supply. While DR and energy storage can serve as alternatives or complements to traditional power system assets in some applications, their values are not entirely clear. This study seeks to address the extent to which DR and energy storage can provide cost-effective benefits to the grid and to highlight institutions and market rules that facilitate their use.The project was initiated and informed by the results of two DOE workshops; one on energy storage and the other on DR. The workshops were attended by members of the electric power industry, researchers, and policymakers, and the study design and goals reflect their contributions to the collective thinking of the project team. Additional information and the full series of reports can be found at www.eere.energy.gov/analysis/.

The most dangerous effects of anthropogenic climate change can be mitigated by using emissions taxes or other regulatory interventions to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This paper takes a regulatory viewpoint and describes the Weighted Sum Bisection method to determine the lowest emission tax rate that can reduce the anticipated emissions of the power sector below a prescribed, regulatorily-defined target. This bilevel method accounts for a variety of operating conditions via stochastic programming and remains computationally tractable for realistically large planning test systems, even when binary commitment decisions and multi-period constraints on conventional generators are considered.Case studies on a modified ISO New England test system demonstrate that this method reliably finds the minimum tax rate that meets emissions targets. In addition, it investigates the relationship between system investments and the tax-setting process. Introducing GHG emissions taxes increases the value proposition for investment in new cleaner generation, transmission, and energy efficiency; conversely, investing in these technologies reduces the tax rate required to reach a given emissions target.