Summary The thermal-enhanced-oil-recovery (EOR) steam-generation projects in Persian Gulf oil fields are on such a large scale that they affect an entire country's economic position. As such, the policies related to oilfield steam generation should be decided at the national level by use of the cost of the marginal fuel. This paper calculates the steam cost for three methods: once-through steam generator, once-through heat-recovery steam generator, and solar steam generator. Detailed performance and economic models of the steam-generation methods were created and used to calculate the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) and the fuel break-even (FBE) price. The environmental and economic burdens on the cost of steam generation are explored. The effect of fuel price on the cost of steam is also analyzed, with a focus on the marginal fuel price. Finally, the limitation of cogeneration in an isolated oil field, where the energy demand necessitates electricity-matched cogeneration, was analyzed. This limitation, along with the steam cost at the marginal fuel price, provides the decision maker with a steam-supply curve. For the case analyzed in this paper, the cost of solar steam is lower than that of cogeneration or a simple boiler for fuel prices greater than USD 5/million Btu.

The thermal EOR steam generation projects in Gulf oilfields are on such a large scale that they affect an entire country's economic position. As such, the policies related to oilfield steam generation should be decided at the national level using the cost of the marginal fuel. This paper calculates the steam cost for three methods: 1) once-through steam generator (OTSG) 2) once-through heat recovery steam generator (OT-HRSG) and 3) solar steam generator (SSG).We have created detailed performance and economic models of the steam generation methods and used them to calculate the levelized cost of energy and the Fuel Break Even (FBE). We explore the environmental and economic burdens on the cost of steam generation. The effect of fuel price on the cost of steam is also analyzed with a focus on the marginal fuel price.The analysis shows that the fully burdened steam costs using $6/MMBTU fuel, for OTSG, OT-HRSG, and SSG are $27/ton, $20/ton, and $17/ton, respectively. The FBE for SSG vs. OTSG is $4.95/MMBTU when the OTSG is unburdened and decreases to $2.25/MMBTU when the environmental burden of Carbon Cost is added. The FBE for SSG vs. OT-HRSG is $7.70/MMBTU when burdened with Power Opportunity Cost and $4.50/MMBTU when the additional burdens of Carbon Cost and Water Opportunity Cost are accounted for.Finally, we analyze the limitations of OT-HRSG in an isolated oilfield where the electric:thermal demand necessitiates electricity-matched cogeneration. This limitation along with the steam cost at the marginal fuel price provides the decisionmaker with a steam supply curve.

This paper presents performance, results and learnings from the first solar enhanced oil recovery (EOR) project in the MENA region. The following areas are covered in the paper: the motivation for solar EOR in Oman, description of the enclosed trough design employed in the Amal field, operations and performance data in the Oman desert environment, integration with oilfield operations and an update on results at the time of publication. According to industry forecasts, the GCC region faces a significant shortfall of gas supply. In Oman today, over 22% of gas consumed is used for oil production including power generation, gas injection and steam generation for EOR. The pilot project deployed in Amal West field was of a new enclosed trough design in which solar radiation is concentrated using parabolic trough mirrors that are enclosed to protect them from dust and wind loading. The "once-through" design allows the use of standard OTSG feed-water to produce 80% quality steam at 100 bar, matching typical EOR specifications. The key objective for the pilot was to prove that the system is able to be deployed practically and economically at scale in the region. To do this several key elements had to be field proven. First, it was important to prove that the steam output could be modeled and predicted with certainty. The paper will discuss performance verses model and the enhancements implemented during the year to improve steam production and quality. Second, the oilfields of Oman lie in a region with about fifteen times higher dust or "soiling rate" than locations where concentrating solar power (CSP) is typically deployed. The performance of the system in extreme weather was tested. In conclusion, the data will point towards the feasibility of full field deployment of solar EOR in the region and explore some of the challenges that lie ahead in its adoption.

Solar Enhanced Oil Recovery: Application to Kuwait's Heavy Oil FieldsThermal enhanced oil recovery (EOR) is poised to make a large contribution to Kuwait's oil production and reserves. Over 12 billion barrels of heavy oil in shallow sandstone are known in the Lower Fars in North Kuwait (Oskui et al 2009), and the first phase of thermal EOR targeting 60,000 bopd is now in engineering and construction, with targets established of 270 M bopd and above (Sanyal 2009). Large resources in carbonate formations at the Wafra field in the PZ have responded favorably to pilot thermal EOR (Barge et al 2009, Meddaugh et al 2012), and large scale production has been planned with first phase of thermal EOR targeting 80,000 bopd (Chevron 2015).Thermal EOR creates huge demands for fuel to make steam, and the cost and availability of that fuel has a very strong impact on the economic viability of the production operation. Kuwait currently experiences gas shortages that are driving LNG imports, and power generation requirements are forecast to rise faster than new domestic gas production. The energy required for these new thermal EOR operations adds greatly to requirements for new fuel supplies in Kuwait Solar steam generation has emerged as a promising large-scale source of energy for thermal EOR operations, with several successful pilot projects now operating in California and the Middle East, and full-field commercial facilities in construction in Oman. Solar EOR replaces gas-fired steam with solar-generated steam, eliminating up to 80% of fuel use. Solar EOR offers large opportunities for reduced production costs and expanded reserves in Kuwait's fields. Kuwait enjoys year-round high levels of solar radiation, allowing solar energy to deliver large reductions in gas used for EOR. Long term solar steam supply without fuel costs will defer Љshut-in,Љ extend the economic life and increase ultimate recovery. This creates a triple prize for the Kuwait oil industry: lowered current production costs, expanded current production levels, and increased proven reserves.The Kuwait desert environment poses unique challenges for solar energy systems, however, with levels of wind, sand, dust and heat beyond the experience and capabilities of many existing solar technologies. Special care must be taken in specifying and planning systems for Kuwait oilfield operation. This paper reviews available data on these subjects and the field experience of solar systems operating in harsh environments.