Advocates claim that when citizens can make law through voter initiatives, they become better citizens. This paper puts that claim into context. Using data from the Current Population Survey November Supplement and American National Election Studies for each election between 1978 and 2004, it demonstrates that voter initiatives in the American states have limited effects on turnout, and on political knowledge and efficacy. Initiatives increase voters' likelihood of turning out to vote in six of seven midterm elections under study, but show no effect on turnout at presidential elections. For knowledge among non-voters and for political efficacy among all respondents, the results show null effects; for knowledge among voters, they indicate modest effects.Keywords Initiatives Á Behavior Á Citizenship Á Direct democracy This paper examines the effect of state ballot initiatives on turnout, political knowledge, and efficacy in the United States from 1978 to 2004. Apart from the content of what they propose, initiatives represent a method by which democracies may adjudicate the issues that they face. The paper considers, in general, how that means of democratic decision-making affects citizenship.Twenty-four states have some form of voter initiative, in which citizens who gather sufficient signatures can place proposed laws on the ballot for voters' Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (

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, and participants in the SSRC Anxieties of Democracy Institutions Working Group Conference for helpful comments.

This article pursues a developmental understanding of American parties as autonomous and thick collective actors through a comparison of four key historical actors we term “prophets of party”: partisans of the nineteenth-century Party Period; Progressive reformers; mid-twentieth century liberal Democrats; and activists in and around the body popularly known as the McGovern-Fraser Commission. Leading theories portray political parties as the vehicles either of ambitious politicians or of groups eager to extract benefits from the state. Yet such analyses leave underdetermined the path from such actors’ desires for power to the parties’ wielding of it. That path is mediated by partisan forms and practices that have varied widely across institutional and cultural context. As parties search for electoral majority, they do so in the long shadow of ideas and practices, layered and accreted across time, concerning the role of parties in political life. We analyze four such prophesies, trace their layered contributions to their successors, and reflect on their legacy for contemporary party politics.