BackgroundSpatial reasoning skill has consistently been found to be malleable. However, there is little research to date on embedding spatial training within learning frameworks. This study evaluated the effects of a classroom-based spatial reasoning intervention on middle school children’s spatial reasoning. Participants included 337 students from 15 classrooms across 6 schools with 8 experimental and 7 control classes. The program was designed for grades 3, 4, 5, and 6. The intervention program was delivered within the Experience-Language-Pictorial-Symbolic-Application (ELPSA) framework and was delivered across 10 weeks by classroom teachers, while the control group received standard mathematics instruction.ResultsChildren in the experimental classes outperformed the control classes on spatial reasoning at the conclusion of the program. The intervention program received high levels of engagement and evidence for development through the stages of the ELPSA framework.ConclusionsThis paper provides evidence for the effectiveness of a rich spatial training program delivered within a learning framework. This program has applications for spatial thinking in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1186/s41235-018-0147-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

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Background. The role of gender in both spatial and mathematics performance has been extensively studied separately, with a male advantage often found in spatial tasks and mathematics from adolescence. Spatial reasoning is consistently linked to mathematics proficiency, yet despite this, little research has investigated the role of spatial orientation and gender in the relationship between spatial reasoning and mathematics. Aims. In the present study, three spatial reasoning constructs (mental rotation, spatial visualization, and spatial orientation) were examined for their unique contributions to mathematics performance in two samples (Study 1: grade 5; Study 2: grade 8). In light of the emerging gender gap in mathematics as children develop, these relationships were explored as a function of gender. Sample. Eighty-four fifth-grade students participated in Study 1 (43 females, 41 males; mean age = 11.19 years). Nine hundred and three eighth-grade students participated in Study 2 (498 females, 405 males; mean age = 13.83 years). Methods. The three spatial reasoning constructs (mental rotation, spatial visualization, and spatial orientation) were examined for their unique contributions to mathematics performance for females and males in general and across different mathematical content (geometry-measurement and number sense). Results. Spatial factors accounted for 51% of the variance in math scores in Study 1 (grade 5) and 32% of the variance in math scores in Study 2 (grade 8). In both studies, spatial factors predicted a larger proportion of variance in geometry-measurement than for number sense. Spatial orientation was found to be a unique contributor in all mathematics models, object-based spatial skills (mental rotation and spatial visualization) varied in their contribution to math performance depending on mathematics content and gender. Conclusions. The present work highlights the unique contribution of spatial orientation in the spatial-mathematics relationship and provides insights into the nature of gender differences in mathematical problem-solving as a function of spatial reasoning and mathematics content.

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The articles in this MERJ special issue collectively explore how spatial reasoning is related to, and supports, mathematics learning. Spatial reasoning refers to a suite of different skills that involve the mental manipulation of two-dimensional and threedimensional relations between and within objects. The relation between spatial reasoning and mathematics achievement across development is consistent, predictive, and strengthens over time (Resnick et al. 2019). Fortunately, spatial reasoning can be learned and improved with practice (Lowrie et al. 2018; Uttal et al. 2013), and improvements in spatial reasoning are causally related to improvements in mathematics understanding (Cheng & Mix 2014; Lowrie et al. 2017). However, these relations vary by task (e.g., Mix et al. 2016), highlighting the need to consider how specific connections are formed and extend to more general performance. This special issue brings together international research across the fields of mathematics education, development, and cognition, which serves to bridge and bring exposure to frequently siloed findings. In doing so, we (the editorial team) were faced with many challenges reconciling the fundamentally different methodologies, definitions, and valued outcomes each field takes in their research practice. For example, we needed to balance finding appropriate reviewers to ensure the accepted papers would meet the methodological standards within and across the relevant fields of discipline, while purposefully showcasing representative approaches that might complement or be adopted by researchers from other fields. To this end, the articles within the special issue have taken care to explicitly describe their techniques and define their constructs. We have emerged with a collection of nine strong papers across four continents. Contributions range from early career to experienced researchers; such is the breadth and depth of research on this topic. These papers can be conceptualized along two overarching themes: (1) theoretical/ conceptual links between spatial reasoning and mathematics skills and (2) practical application of spatial reasoning learning in mathematics environments. The Lowrie