The Asian Central Steppe, consisting of current-day Kazakhstan and Russia, has acted as a highway for major migrations throughout history. Therefore, describing the genetic composition of past populations in Central Asia holds value to understanding human mobility in this pivotal region. In this study, we analyse paleogenomic data generated from five humans from Kuygenzhar, Kazakhstan. These individuals date to the early to mid-18th century, shortly after the Kazakh Khanate was founded, a union of nomadic tribes of Mongol Golden Horde and Turkic origins. Genomic analysis identifies that these individuals are admixed with varying proportions of East Asian ancestry, indicating a recent admixture event from East Asia. The high amounts of DNA from the anaerobic Gram-negative bacteria Tannerella forsythia, a periodontal pathogen, recovered from their teeth suggest they may have suffered from periodontitis disease. Genomic analysis of this bacterium identified recently evolved virulence and glycosylation genes including the presence of antibiotic resistance genes predating the antibiotic era. This study provides an integrated analysis of individuals with a diet mostly based on meat (mainly horse and lamb), milk, and dairy products and their oral microbiome.

The article proposes a cross-cultural analysis of the concept of continuity of burial traditions in the cultures of the protoTurkic and Turkic peoples of northern Eurasia, based on archaeological and folklore sources and ethnographic data of the Kazakh and Yakut ethnicities. Researchers use materials from archaeological studies of known and new sites of the Early Iron Age and Turkic time in Kazakhstan (Berel, Kyrykungir, etc.). The study of the topic requires the use of methodological approaches and developments of cultural and social anthropology, structural and semiotic analysis, deciphering the general appearance of similar cases in the spiritual culture of asynchronical, but mono-ethnic societies for the reconstruction of worldview ideas. When characterizing burial sites, the authors use traditional methods of archaeological description, chronological determination, stratigraphy, typological analysis, etc. New data have been obtained on the connections of elements of the worldview of tribes from the early Iron Age — the Middle Ages, enshrined in the burial rite of the Saka and Turkic population of the Eurasian steppes and materials of modern folklore of Turkic peoples (Kazakhs and Sakha Yakuts).

Purpose. The authors tried to reveal the reasons, duration and place of temporary preservation of the bodies of the Kazakhs on the basis of archaeological, historical and folklore-literary sources. The authors also tried to trace the historical continuity in the funeral and memorial rites of nomads.Results. The tradition of delayed burials is associated with the natural conditions and economic cycle of nomads. Based on ethnographic data, the authors analyze various options for preserving the body before burial. According to it, the practice of performing deferred burials originates from the period of early nomads of the Eurasian steppes. Archaeological materials contain evidence of the usage of deferred burials of notable individuals among the Turks. The article also discusses the special veneration of ancestors, which can also be traced in the funeral rites of early nomads. The large burial mounds were build in their honor, and they were buried in clothes adorned with gold, with a large quantity of supporting equipment. The funeral and memorial rites of the nomadic Kazakh people also include the veneration of ancestral spirits. They tried to bury their khans, batyrs and biys in the mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi. And to do this, they had to temporarily bury the body and save it until burial.Conclusion. Islam brought changes in the funeral rites of the steppe population. However, the Kazakh people tried to preserve the traditions that do not contradict the Sharia, in some cases without changes, in others, some customs were transformed in accordance with the norms and teachings of Islam. The Kazakhs managed to unite the two worlds, and for a life of peace and prosperity, with the blessing of aruakh, arranged memorial dinners on the third, seventh, fortieth day, the annual “as”, sacrifices, but in many traditions and customs, the reading of prayers from the Koran was introduced.

Introduction. The article describes a 3D documentation and visualization technique. Goals. The study seeks to preserve and reconstruct key forms and types of Kazakh memorial architecture with the aid of visual archeology tools. Materials and methods. The work started with determination of morphological characteristics inherent to the objects under study — mudbrick mausoleums. In accordance with the latter, a three-dimensional visualization technique was selected. The photography scenarios have been developed following recommendations of the software developers. The paper provides detailed insights into all stages of creating three-dimensional models, including data collection, feature description of the equipment used, pre-shooting computational analysis, shooting proper, and data post-processing. Special attention is paid to the most important and crucial moment of the survey — shooting, which was performed from different angles each to have yielded a distinguished set of photographs. It is urgent to take a sufficient number of high-quality photographs from different angles. A number of photographs for each angle should be as high as possible — from 30–40 to several hundreds and thousands. Results. The work notes that 6–8 sets were made for each mausoleum. Documentation of one object only (taking into account additional and spare photographs) includes a total of 500–600 photographs. Extensive efforts were made to process the obtained data, the latter work be implemented in a specific order to result in three-dimensional models and visualization patterns of the examined mausoleums. Preservation of mudbrick steppe monuments in digital format is an urgent need because those are a vanishing type of late medieval memorial architecture dating back to ancient times. Digital 3D-models of collapsing mudbrick mausoleums shall always be invaluable for science as historical sources, part of the Kazakh national cultural heritage.

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