(PNNL) to identify monitoring and control needs for small-and medium-sized commercial buildings, and to recommend possible solutions. The scope of this study is to characterize the monitoring and controls needs for the various end uses (for both efficiency and demand response), determine requirements to develop control packages, and calculate the target cost of doing so. Section 1.0 introduces the study scope and analysis approaches used. Discussions regarding the number of buildings in the U.S that comprise "small-size" and "medium-size" buildings, their lack of building automation systems (BAS) and potential energy improvements, as well as challenges, are detailed in this section. Section 2.0 covers the characterization of both small-and medium-sized buildings. Drawing upon Energy Information Administration's Commercial Building Energy Consumption Survey data from various surveys, detailed discussions of energy end-use and electrical end-use consumption values are provided. This section spring boards into further discussions for the various end-use loads and the present penetration of "intelligent" controls in the existing market. Discussions of existing and possible future control methods, strategies and concepts that are applicable (including heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC); lighting and miscellaneous end-use loads) complete this section. Section 3.0 discusses the different communication architectures that might be found in a small-or medium-sized building BAS, as it relates to the communication networks needed to support them. This discussion covers the different technologies that have been in place (older) or are becoming more prevalent (newer), and how they work. This includes wired solutions, wireless solutions or a combination of both (hybrid wired-wireless) networks and industry standards, open and proprietary protocols. For each solution, the limitations of each technology are detailed (speed, bandwidth, reliability, etc.). Cost factors are also discussed because this relates to how these systems are being pushed to the market, and their acceptance (or lack of). Section 4.0 describes the BAS, as has historically been seen and known in large building applications and the small-or medium-sized building applications. This section describes the history of BASs and how they have evolved and improved over time, and summarizes their core functions. This description proceeds to discuss the major architectural requirements needed by new BASs to allow for greater penetration in the existing building stock in the U.S. This section concludes by providing three different options of what a future BAS configuration might look like for either a small-sized building (two different options) or for a medium-sized building (one option). Section 5.0 presents the requirements and capabilities of various devices used to monitor and control different end-use loads found in small-and medium-sized buildings. This includes a robust presentation of the different requirements for the gateway, master controller, co...

This multi-year research study was initiated to find solutions to improve packaged heating and cooling equipment operating efficiency in the field. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), with funding from the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE's) Building Technologies Office (BTO) and Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) conducted this research, development and demonstration (RD&D) study.Packaged heating and cooling equipment with constant speed supply fans is designed to provide ventilation at the design rate at all times when the fan is operating and when the building is occupied as required by building code. Although there are a number of hours during the day when a building may not be fully occupied or the need for ventilation is lower than designed, the ventilation rate cannot be adjusted easily with a constant speed fan. Therefore, modulating the supply fan in conjunction with demand controlled ventilation (DCV) will not only reduce the heating/cooling energy but also reduce the fan energy.The objective of this multi-year RD&D project was to determine the magnitude of energy savings achievable by retrofitting existing packaged rooftop air units (RTUs) with advanced control strategies not ordinarily used for RTUs. First, in FY11, through detailed simulation analysis, it was shown that significant energy (between 24% and 35%) and cost savings (38%) from fan, cooling and heating energy consumption could be realized when RTUs with gas furnaces are retrofitted with advanced control packages (combining multi-speed fan control, integrated economizer controls and DCV). The simulation analysis also showed significant savings for heat pumps (between 20% and 60%). The simulation analysis was followed by an extensive field test of a retrofittable advanced RTU controller.In FY12, a total of 66 RTUs on 8 different buildings were retrofitted with a commercially available advanced controller for improving RTU operational efficiency. Of the 66 RTUs, 17 were packaged heat pumps and the rest were packaged air conditioners with gas heat. The eight buildings cover four building types, including mercantile (both retail and shopping malls), office, food sales, and healthcare. These buildings are located in four different climate zones, including warm and coastal climate, mixed and humid climate, mixed and marine climate, and cool and moist climate. One-minute interval data was collected from these 66 units over a 12-month period. During the 12 months of monitoring period, the controls on the RTUs were alternated between standard (pre-retrofit mode) and advanced control modes on a daily basis. The measured actual savings, the normalized annual energy savings, and the savings uncertainties were calculated using the methods described in the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Guideline 14. Major findings from this work are highlighted below: The advanced controller reduced the normalized annual RTU energy consumption between 22% and 90%, with an average of 57% for all RT...

The dynamical behavior of model peptides was evaluated with respect to their ability to form internal proton donor-acceptor pairs using molecular dynamics simulations. The proton donor-acceptor pairs are postulated to be prerequisites for peptide bond cleavage resulting in formation of b and y ions during low-energy collision-induced dissociation in tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). The simulations for the polyalanine pentamer Ala(5)H(+) were compared with experimental data from energy-resolved surface induced dissociation (SID) studies. The results of the simulation are insightful into the events that likely lead up to the fragmentation of peptides. Nine-mer polyalanine-based model peptides were used to examine the dynamical effect of each of the 20 common amino acids on the probability to form donor-acceptor pairs at labile peptide bonds. A range of probabilities was observed as a function of the substituted amino acid. However, the location of the peptide bond involved in the donor-acceptor pair plays a critical role in the dynamical behavior. This influence of position on the probability of forming a donor-acceptor pair would be hard to predict from statistical analyses on experimental spectra of aggregate, diverse peptides. In addition, the inclusion of basic side chains in the model peptides alters the probability of forming donor-acceptor pairs across the entire backbone. In this case, there are still more ionizing protons than basic residues, but the side chains of the basic amino acids form stable hydrogen bond networks with the peptide carbonyl oxygens and thus act to prevent free access of "mobile protons" to labile peptide bonds. It is clear from the work that the identification of peptides from low-energy CID using automated computational methods should consider the location of the fragmenting bond as well as the amino acid composition.

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