The merger of game-based approaches and Virtual Reality (VR) environments that can enhance learning and training methodologies have a very promising future, reinforced by the widespread market-availability of affordable software and hardware tools for VR-environments. Rather than passive observers, users engage in those learning environments as active participants, permitting the development of exploration-based learning paradigms. There are separate reviews of VR technologies and serious games for educational and training purposes with a focus on only one knowledge area. However, this review covers 135 proposals for serious games in immersive VR-environments that are combinations of both VR and serious games and that offer end-user validation. First, an analysis of the forum, nationality, and date of publication of the articles is conducted. Then, the application domains, the target audience, the design of the game and its technological implementation, the performance evaluation procedure, and the results are analyzed. The aim here is to identify the factual standards of the proposed solutions and the differences between training and learning applications. Finally, the study lays the basis for future research lines that will develop serious games in immersive VRenvironments, providing recommendations for the improvement of these tools and their successful application for the enhancement of both learning and training tasks.

Two teaching methodologies are presented and compared in this study: on the one hand, semi-guided tours in immersive virtual reality and, on the other, viewing video renderings of 3D environments. The two techniques are contrasted through 3D modeling of a 15 th c. Spanish town called Briviesca, in an immersive environment, viewed with Oculus Rift. The suitability of Virtual Reality for teaching is assessed through questions on historical knowledge and urban layout. The understanding of the undergraduate students is evaluated, through questionnaires, after the viewing sessions. The responses of the students underline the effectiveness of the two methodologies: video screenings received higher scores for historical ideas and the virtual tour was the most effective method at conveying knowledge learnt while viewing. Additionally, two user movements for controlling the virtual reality environment were tested: 1) gamepad locomotion; 2) roomscale movements combined with teleporting. The clear advantage of the second option was the total lack of motion sickness effects. However, the natural tendency using teleporting was to move very quickly through the city areas with no singular buildings and to spend more time in front of these types of buildings. They therefore missed visual information related to the first areas while retaining more information related to those buildings. Finally, the spatial location of singular buildings was clearly better acquired with the virtual tour.

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Immersive virtual reality (VR) environments create a very strong sense of presence and immersion. Nowadays, especially when student isolation and online autonomous learning is required, such sensations can provide higher satisfaction and learning rates than conventional teaching. However, up until the present, learning outcomes with VR tools have yet to prove their advantageous aspects over conventional teaching. The project presents a VR serious game for teaching concepts associated with computer hardware assembly. These concepts are often included in any undergraduate’s introduction to Computer Science. The learning outcomes are evaluated using a pre-test of previous knowledge, a satisfaction/usability test, and a post-test on knowledge acquisition, structured with questions on different knowledge areas. The results of the VR serious game are compared with another two learning methodologies adapted to online learning: (1) an online conventional lecture; and (2) playing the same serious game on a desktop PC. An extensive sample of students (n = 77) was formed for this purpose. The results showed the strong potential of VR serious games to improve student well-being during spells of confinement, due to higher learning satisfaction. Besides, ease of usability and the use of in-game tutorials are directly related with game-user satisfaction and performance. The main novelty of this research is related to academic performance. Although a very limited effect was noted for learning theoretical knowledge with the VR application in comparison with the other methodologies, this effect was significantly improved through visual knowledge, understanding and making connections between different concepts. It can therefore be concluded that the proposed VR serious game has the potential to increase student learning and therefore student satisfaction, by imparting a deeper understanding of the subject matter to students.

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