Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) is caused by coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) and has produced a global pandemic. As of 22 June 2021, 178 million people have been affected worldwide, and 3.87 million people have died from COVID-19. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) of the United States, COVID-19 virus is primarily transmitted between people through respiratory droplets and contact routes. Since the location of initial infection and disease progression is primarily through the lungs, the inhalation delivery of drugs directly to the lungs may be the most appropriate route of administration for treating COVID-19. This review article aims to present possible inhalation therapeutics and vaccines for the treatment of COVID-19 symptoms. This review covers the comparison between SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses such as SARS-CoV/MERS, inhalation therapeutics for the treatment of COVID-19 symptoms, and vaccines for preventing infection, as well as the current clinical status of inhaled therapeutics and vaccines.

Abstract:The surface energy balance and near-surface weather variables were measured during the complete growth cycle of cotton and wheat crops planted in two successive seasons in 1995±1996 at a ®eld site in the Yaqui Valley in Sonora, Mexico. These data were analysed in terms of a set of simple evapotranspiration models, which included the Penman±Monteith equation applied at both the hourly and daily time-scales and four semiempirical simpli®cations of that equation. The ®eld data were used to investigate and specify seasonal variations in the surface parameters (crop coecient or surface resistance) appropriate to these models. There was a marked dierence between the eective value of surface parameters for the (cotton) row crop and the (wheat) continuous-cover crop during and immediately after periods of¯ood irrigation. This dierence re¯ects the fact that wet soil and remnant pools of irrigation water are well exposed to the atmosphere for¯ood-irrigated row crops and that evapotranspiration rates are enhanced. It proved possible to incorporate a description of this phenomenon by including a simple, additional term in an otherwise traditional model of the seasonal variation in crop factor or surface resistance. Once the parameters in the various models had been optimized against ®eld data, all the models provided reasonable descriptions of the measured evapotranspiration. However, the Penman±Monteith equation applied at the hourly time-scale performed least well and required greater parameterization; hence, its use in this application is not justi®ed. At the daily time-scale, use of the Penman± Monteith equation or Shuttleworth's reference crop evaporation (with a crop factor) is arguably preferable to the others in that, having more realism, it provides a description in which the (calibrated) surface parameters are a purer measure of crop control. However, in terms of descriptive ability after local calibration, the Penman, Priestley±Taylor, and Makkink models proved superior in this study. The good performance of the Makkink formulation is particularly encouraging because this equation requires only incoming solar radiation, which can be readily estimated from remotely sensed data. #

Aims To study the individual and combined contribution of catechin, protocatechuic and vanillic acids to inhibit the adhesion of uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) on the surface of silicone catheters. Methods and Results The adhesion of UPEC to silicone catheters during the exposure to nonlethal concentrations of phenolic compounds was measured, as well as changes in motility, presence of fimbriae, extra-cellular polymeric substances, surface charge, hydrophobicity and membrane fluidity. The phenolic combination reduced 26–51% of motility, 1 log CFU per cm2 of adhered bacteria and 20–40% the carbohydrate and protein content in the biofilm matrix. Curli fimbriae, surface charge and cell hydrophobicity were affected to a greater extent by the phenolic combination. In the mixture, vanillic acid was the most effective for reducing bacterial adhesion, extra-polymeric substance production, motility, curli fimbriae and biofilm structure. Notwithstanding, protocatechuic acid caused major changes in the bacterial cell surface properties, whereas catechin affected the cell membrane functionality. Conclusion Catechin, protocatechuic and vanillic acids have different bacterial cell targets, explaining the synergistic effect of their combination against uropathogenic E. coli. Significance and Impact of Study This study shows the contribution of catechin, protocatechuic and vanillic acids in producing a synergistic mixture against the adhesion of uropathogenic E. coli on silicone catheters. The action of catechin, vanillic and protocatechuic acids included specific contributions of each compound against the E. coli membrane’s integrity, motility, surface properties and production of extracellular polymeric substances. Therefore, the studied mixture of phenolic compounds could be used as an antibiotic alternative to reduce urinary tract infections associated with silicone catheters.

Central nervous system (CNS) disorders, such as psychiatric disorders, neurodegeneration, chronic pain, stroke, brain tumor, spinal cord injury, and many other CNS diseases, would hugely benefit from specific and potent peptide pharmaceuticals and their low inherent toxicity. The delivery of peptides to the brain is challenging due to their low metabolic stability, which decreases their duration of action, poor penetration of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and their incompatibility with oral administration, typically resulting in the need for parenteral administration. These challenges limit peptides’ clinical application and explain the interest in alternative routes of peptide administration, particularly nose-to-brain (N-to-B) delivery, which allows protein and peptide drugs to reach the brain noninvasively. N-to-B delivery can be a convenient method for rapidly targeting the CNS, bypassing the BBB, and minimizing systemic exposure; the olfactory and trigeminal nerves provide a unique pathway to the brain and the external environment. This review highlights the intranasal delivery of drugs, focusing on peptide delivery, illustrating various clinical applications, nasal delivery devices, and the scope and limitations of this approach.