In this paper, we conclude that Indonesia has vast potential for generating and balancing solar photovoltaic (PV) energy to meet future energy needs at a competitive cost. We systematically analyse renewable energy potential in Indonesia. Solar PV is identified to be an energy source whose technical, environmental and economic potential far exceeds Indonesia’s present and future energy requirements and is far larger than all other renewable energy resources combined. We estimate that electricity consumption in Indonesia could reach 9000 terawatt-hours per year by 2050, which is 30 times larger than at present. Indonesia has abundant space to deploy enough solar to meet this requirement, including on rooftops, inland reservoirs, mining wasteland, and in combination with agriculture. Importantly, Indonesia has a vast maritime area that almost never experiences strong winds or large waves that could host floating solar capable of generating >200,000 terawatt-hours per year. Indonesia also has far more off-river pumped hydro energy storage potential than required for balancing solar generation.

COVID-19 has disrupted all aspects of human life. To mitigate the impact of the pandemic, several efforts have been taken, including by Indonesian scholars abroad. This book entitled Indonesia Post-Pandemic Recovery Outlook: Strategy towards Net-Zero Emissions by 2060 from the Renewables and Carbon-Neutral Energy Perspectives explores energy sustainability and climate change issues and how it can progress further. There are also discussion on the delays caused by the COVID-19 pandemic to a few major renewable energy projects that should have been done in 2020-2021. Comprising of 14 chapters, this book is divided into three sections. The first part, Indonesia's Current Position and Strategy for Renewable Energy, explores Indonesia's current position and strategy on New and Renewable Energy. This chapter also explores Indonesia's commitment towards Net-Zero Carbon Emission 2060. Second, Carbon-Free and Renewable Energy in Indonesia, discusses the status of renewable energy use in the world, elaborate on the carbon impact of energy shift from fossil to renewable sources, and introduce a new criterion in renewable energy: carbon-neutral energy. The last part, Indonesia's New Strategy to Achieve Net-Zero Emission in 2060, explores the macroeconomic benefits of renewable and carbon-neutral energy deployment which are increasing energy security, fueling GDP development, creating job opportunities, enhancing human welfare, and achieving gender equality. We hope that this book can be a valuable reference for stakeholders, policymakers, as well as society to recover from the pandemic crisis and find better solutions to benefit future generations.

Indonesia has vast solar energy potential, far more than needed to meet all its energy requirements without the use of fossil fuels. This remains true after per capita energy consumption rises to match developed countries, and most energy functions are electrified to minimize the use of fossil fuels. Because Indonesia has relatively small energy potential from hydro, wind, biomass, geothermal and ocean energy, it will rely mostly on solar for its sustainable energy needs. Thus, Indonesia will require large amounts of storage for overnight and longer periods. Pumped hydro comprises 99% of global energy storage for the electricity industry. In this paper, we demonstrate that Indonesia has vast practical potential for low-cost off-river pumped hydro energy storage with low environmental and social impact; far more than it needs to balance a solar-dominated energy system.

In this paper, we analyse 40 years of maximum wind speed and wave height data to identify potential sites for solar photovoltaic (PV) systems floating on seas and oceans. Maximum hourly wave height and wind speed data were segregated into 5 distinct categories. These categorisations were then combined at the nearest wind speed and wave height grid point for each sea location, generating a comprehensive wind–wave map via a geographic information system (GIS) visualisation. We find that regions around the equator are generally calm, i.e., free from strong winds and large waves. The most favourable locations are around the Indonesian archipelago, and the Gulf of Guinea on the west coast of tropical Africa. Our analysis indicates the huge potential of floating solar PV systems in calm tropical maritime regions, capable of generating about one million terawatt-hours per year in regions that rarely experience waves larger than 6 m or winds stronger than 15 m/s. This study furthers our understanding of alternative renewable energy options, emphasising the promising potential of offshore floating solar PV systems in the global energy transition.

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