Proteins show diverse responses when placed under mechanical stress. The molecular origins of their differing mechanical resistance are still unclear, although the orientation of secondary structural elements relative to the applied force vector is thought to have an important function. Here, by using a method of protein immobilization that allows force to be applied to the same all-beta protein, E2lip3, in two different directions, we show that the energy landscape for mechanical unfolding is markedly anisotropic. These results, in combination with molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, reveal that the unfolding pathway depends on the pulling geometry and is associated with unfolding forces that differ by an order of magnitude. Thus, the mechanical resistance of a protein is not dictated solely by amino acid sequence, topology or unfolding rate constant, but depends critically on the direction of the applied extension.

The β-barrel assembly machinery (BAM) is a ∼203 kDa complex of five proteins (BamA–E), which is essential for viability in E. coli. BAM promotes the folding and insertion of β-barrel proteins into the outer membrane via a poorly understood mechanism. Several current models suggest that BAM functions through a ‘lateral gating' motion of the β-barrel of BamA. Here we present a cryo-EM structure of the BamABCDE complex, at 4.9 Å resolution. The structure is in a laterally open conformation showing that gating is independent of BamB binding. We describe conformational changes throughout the complex and interactions between BamA, B, D and E, and the detergent micelle that suggest communication between BAM and the lipid bilayer. Finally, using an enhanced reconstitution protocol and functional assays, we show that for the outer membrane protein OmpT, efficient folding in vitro requires lateral gating in BAM.

beta-sheet proteins are generally more able to resist mechanical deformation than alpha-helical proteins. Experiments measuring the mechanical resistance of beta-sheet proteins extended by their termini led to the hypothesis that parallel, directly hydrogen-bonded terminal beta-strands provide the greatest mechanical strength. Here we test this hypothesis by measuring the mechanical properties of protein L, a domain with a topology predicted to be mechanically strong, but with no known mechanical function. A pentamer of this small, topologically simple protein is resistant to mechanical deformation over a wide range of extension rates. Molecular dynamics simulations show the energy landscape for protein L is highly restricted for mechanical unfolding and that this protein unfolds by the shearing apart of two structural units in a mechanism similar to that proposed for ubiquitin, which belongs to the same structural class as protein L, but unfolds at a significantly higher force. These data suggest that the mechanism of mechanical unfolding is conserved in proteins within the same fold family and demonstrate that although the topology and presence of a hydrogen-bonded clamp are of central importance in determining mechanical strength, hydrophobic interactions also play an important role in modulating the mechanical resistance of these similar proteins.

Inspired by the seminal work of Anfinsen, investigations of the folding of small water-soluble proteins have culminated in detailed insights into how these molecules attain and stabilize their native folds. In contrast, despite their overwhelming importance in biology, progress in understanding the folding and stability of membrane proteins remains relatively limited. Here we use mutational analysis to describe the transition state involved in the reversible folding of the β-barrel membrane protein PhoPQ-activated gene P (PagP) from a highly disordered state in 10 M urea to a native protein embedded in a lipid bilayer. Analysis of the equilibrium stability and unfolding kinetics of 19 variants that span all eight β-strands of this 163-residue protein revealed that the transition-state structure is a highly polarized, partly formed β-barrel. The results provide unique and detailed insights into the transition-state structure for β-barrel membrane protein folding into a lipid bilayer and are consistent with a model for outer membrane protein folding via a tilted insertion mechanism.beta barrel | membrane protein | PagP | phi-value analysis | protein folding