Background: The immune system is responsible for providing protection to the body against foreign substances. The immune system divides into two types of immune responses to study its mechanisms of protection: 1) Innate and 2) Adaptive. The innate immune response represents the first protective barrier of the organism that also works as a regulator of the adaptive immune response, if evaded the mechanisms of the innate immune response by the foreign substance the adaptive immune response takes action with the consequent antigen neutralization or elimination. The adaptive immune response objective is developing a specific humoral response that consists in the production of soluble proteins known as antibodies capable of specifically recognizing the foreign agent; such protective mechanism is induced artificially through an immunization or vaccination. Unfortunately, the immunogenicity of the antigens is an intrinsic characteristic of the same antigen dependent on several factors. Conclusion: Vaccine adjuvants are chemical substances of very varied structure that seek to improve the immunogenicity of antigens. The main four types of adjuvants under investigation are the following: 1) Oil emulsions with an antigen in solution, 2) Pattern recognition receptors activating molecules, 3) Inflammatory stimulatory molecules or activators of the inflammasome complex, and 4) Cytokines. However, this paper addresses the biological plausibility of two phytochemical compounds as vaccine adjuvants: 5) Lectins, and 6) Plant phenolics whose characteristics, mechanisms of action and disadvantages are addressed. Finally, the immunological usefulness of these molecules is discussed through immunological data to estimate effects of plant phenolics and lectins as vaccine adjuvants, and current studies that have implanted these molecules as vaccine adjuvants, demonstrating the results of this immunization.

Background: Pathogens use multiple mechanisms to disrupt cell functioning in their host and allow pathogenesis. These mechanisms involve communication between the pathogen and the host cell through protein-protein interactions. Protein-protein interactions chains referred to as signal transduction pathways are the processes by which a chemical or physical signal transmits through a cell as series of molecular events so the pathogen simply needs to intercept these molecular pathways at few positions to induce pathogenesis such as pathogen viability, infection or hypersensitivity. The pathogen nodes of interception are not necessary the most immunogenic; so that, novel immunogenicity-improvement strategies need to be developed thought a chemical conjugation of the pathogen-carrier nodes to develop an efficient immune response in order to block pathogenesis. On the other hand, if pathogen-carriers are immunogens; toleration ought to be induced by this conjugation avoiding hypersensitivity. Thus, this paper addresses the biological plausibility of plant-phenolics as pathogen-carrier immunogenicity modulator haptens. Conclusion: The plant-phenolic compounds have in their structure functional groups such as hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, ester, or ether, capable of reacting with the amino or carbonyl groups of the amino acids of a pathogen-carrier to form conjugates. Besides, the varied carbon structures that these phenolic compounds have; it is possible to alter the pathogen-carrier related factors that determine the immunogenicity: 1) Structural complexity, 2) Molecular size, 3) Structural heterogeneity, 4) Accesibility to antigenic determinants or epitopes, 5) Optical configuration, 6) Physical state, or 7) Molecular rigidity.

Background: Type 2 diabetes (T2DM) has been associated with deficiencies in serum magnesium level, decreasing insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism. Glycosylated hemoglobin (Hb1Ac) is a biomarker of glucose values within the half-life of the erythrocyte, that is, 3 months. Low circulating and intracellular magnesium levels can modify glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity. Renal solute management is a parameter little used to estimate circulating and excreted concentrations of elements such as magnesium. Objective: The purpose of this study was to assess and associated fractional excretion of magnesium (FEMg) and serum magnesium with metabolic parameters, especially Hb1Ac percent, in a group of well characterized subjects with T2DM and non-diabetics subjects (ND). Method: According to Hb1Ac, two groups were compared and associated existing biochemical parameters, included Hb1Ac, fasting glucose, lipid profile, serum creatinine, serum magnesium and urinary creatinine for FEMg. Results: HbA1c levels were explained by serum magnesium in 25%. Serum magnesium levels in the ND group were higher than in the T2DM group and this was a statistically significant difference. Serum magnesium ≤1.8 is a risk factor (OD 16.1; P=0.021) for an HbA1c ≥ 6.5%. Conclusion: In this study, hypomagnesemia was a parameter strongly associated with the diagnosis and progression of T2DM, while FEMg showed no significant association.

: Leptin levels and oxidative stress are implicated in obesity risk. Reports of association of leptin gene (LEP) and leptin receptor gene (LEPR) polymorphisms with leptin elevation are contradictory in diverse population. Only a few studies report linkage of obesity with biochemical markers and genetic factors. Objective: The aim of this study was to examine whether plasma lipid peroxidation, antioxidant capability, leptin levels are associate selected LEP -2548 A/G and LEPR Q223R polymorphisms in mestizo and indigenous obesity Mexican population. Methods: We identified and characterized 50 overweight or obese subjects and 50 healthy, normal-weight volunteers with indigenous Tepehuana or Mexican mestizo ethnicity from Durango, Mexico. LEP -2548 A/G and LEPR Q223R polymorphisms were determined by genotyping. Concentrations of leptin, antioxidant capacity (CA) and lipoperoxidation (LIPX) was determined in fast conditions on plasma with Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay (ELISA) in all participants. Results: The highest genotype frequency was the heterozygous LEPR, which was associated with lipid peroxidation levels in normal-weight Tepehuan populations. A positive correlation was observed (r = 0.5; p <0.01) between LEP polymorphism and lipoperoxidation in normal weight Tepehuan subjects. On the other hand, the LEPR polymorphism was associated with the level of lipoperoxidation (r = 0.13; P <0.05) in mestizo populations of normal weight. Conclusion: It is probable that there is a synergistic effect for obesity, where the presence of oxidative stress and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) of leptin and its receptor, contribute to the generation of pathological subcutaneous fat of obesity, together with the environmental conditions of the populations.