Quantitative differential interference contrast microscopy is demonstrated here as a label-free method, which is able to image and measure the thickness of lipid bilayers with 0.1 nm precision. We investigate the influence of the substrate on the thickness of fluid-phase 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC)-supported lipid bilayers and find a thinning of up to 10%, depending on substrate hydrophilicity, local bilayer coverage, and ionic strength of the medium. With fluorescently labeled lipid bilayers, we also observe changes in the bilayer thickness depending on the choice of fluorophore. Furthermore, liquid-ordered domains in bilayers, formed from DOPC, cholesterol, and sphingomyelin, are measured, and the corresponding thickness change between the liquid-ordered and liquid-disordered phases is accurately determined. Again, the thickness difference is found to be dependent on the presence of the fluorophore label, highlighting the need for quantitative label-free techniques.

SummaryNumerical solutions to the equations describing simultaneous mass transfer and enzymic reaction within porous spherical particles have been used to examine the effect of enzyme content and other parameters on the kinetic behavior of immobilized enzymes. These solutions have also been compared with experimental data for enzymes immobilized to DEAE-cellulose particles. The influence of particle size and enzyme content on catalyst design is discussed.

Lipid phase separation in cellular membranes is thought to play an important role in many biological functions. This has prompted the development of synthetic membranes to study lipid–lipid interactions in vitro, alongside optical microscopy techniques aimed at directly visualizing phase partitioning. In this context, there is a need to overcome the limitations of fluorescence microscopy, where added fluorophores can significantly perturb lipid packing. Raman-based optical imaging is a promising analytical tool for label-free chemically specific microscopy of lipid bilayers. In this work, we demonstrate the application of hyperspectral coherent Raman scattering microscopy combined with a quantitative unsupervised data analysis methodology developed in-house to visualize lipid partitioning in single planar membrane bilayers exhibiting liquid-ordered and liquid-disordered domains. Two home-built instruments were utilized, featuring coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering and stimulated Raman scattering modalities. Ternary mixtures of dioleoylphosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin, and cholesterol were used to form phase-separated domains. We show that domains are consistently resolved, both chemically and spatially, in a completely label-free manner. Quantitative Raman susceptibility spectra of the domains are provided alongside their spatially resolved concentration maps.

Changes in the ordering and motion of lipids in response to changes in the external solute concentration have been studied by using the 5-nitroxide stearate (5NS) and 16-nitroxide stearate (16NS) spin probes in the plasma membrane of the halotolerant unicellular alga Dunaliella salina. Increases in ordering of the 5NS probe and decreases in motion of the 16NS probe were observed in cells equilibrated over 18 h at increasing NaCl concentrations. These changes probably resulted from the influence of the high NaCl concentration on the charged phospholipid head groups of the membrane. A short-term (less than 100 min) decrease in the order parameter, S, of the 5NS probe was observed for cells swollen by exposure to a sudden decrease of NaCl concentration from 5.0 to 2.5 M. After 100 min the value of S for 5NS was close to the value obtained in cells that had been equilibrated in 2.5 M-NaCl for 18 h. Since the cells had regained their original size and shape by 100 min it was assumed that the short-term decrease in S was associated with the swelling. A similar result was obtained when the cells were suddenly changed from 3.0 M- to 1.5 M-sorbitol. Conversely, an increase in S was observed for cells shrunk when the external solute concentration was doubled from 1.5 M- to 3.0 M-NaCl. As the cells regained their original size and shape the value of S decreased to the value observed in cells that had been equilibrated in 3.0 M-NaCl for 18 h. It is suggested that the changes in S are related to the movement of lipid into or out of a reservoir of membrane material as the membrane shrinks or expands. This movement of lipid maintains the tension of the membrane below the value at which it is disrupted. Such changes in lipid ordering could provide a mechanism whereby information about external osmotic-pressure changes is transmitted across the cell wall.

SummaryOne of the main reasons for immobilizing an enzyme is to enable its reuse, or continuous use, in a reactor. Consequently immobilized enzyme stability is an important factor in enzyme reactor design. The performance of the reactor will decrease if during operation the support material disintegrates into smaller particles that pass out of the reactor system.When 8-galactosidase is immobilized by covalent attachment to AE-cellulose, the smaller particles have a higher activity. After subjection of the immobilized enzyme to a shear stress the average particle size decreases and the total enzymic activity increases. A loss of small particles from the reactor, although constituting a small weight percent loss of support, will result in a disproportionately large loss in activity. The relevance of these observations to reactor performance is discussed.