No abstract

Measurement in classical physics is examined here as a process involving the joint evolution of object-system and measuring apparatus. For this, a model of measurement is proposed which lends itself to theoretical analysis using Hamiltonian mechanics and Bayesian probability. At odds with a widely-held intuition, it is found that the ideal measurement capable of extracting finite information without disturbing the system is ruled out (by the third law of thermodynamics). And in its place a Heisenberg-like precision-disturbance relation is found, with the role of ̵ h 2 played by k B T Ω; where T and Ω are a certain temperature and frequency characterizing the ready-state of the apparatus. The proposed model is argued to be maximally efficient, in that it saturates this Heisenberg-like inequality, while various modifications of the model fail to saturate it. The process of continuous measurement is then examined; yielding a novel pair of Liouville-like master equations-according to whether the measurement record is read or discarded-describing the dynamics of (a rational agent's knowledge of) a system under continuous measurement. The master equation corresponding to discarded record doubles as a description of an open thermodynamic system. The fine-grained Shannon entropy is found to be a Lyapunov function (i.e. Ṡ ≥ 0) of the dynamics when the record is discarded, providing a novel H-theorem suitable for studying the second law and non-equilibrium statistical physics. These findings may also be of interest to those working on the foundations of quantum mechanics, in particular along the lines of attempting to identify and unmix a possible epistemic component of quantum theory from its ontic content. More practically, these results may find applications in the fields of precision measurement, nanoengineering and molecular machines.