Calcium (Ca2+) signaling is a versatile signaling network in plant and employs very efficient signal decoders to transduce the encoded message. The CBL–CIPK module is one of the sensor-relay decoders that have probably evolved with the acclimatization of land plant. The CBLs are unique proteins with non-canonical Ca2+ sensing EF-hands, N-terminal localization motif and a C-terminal phosphorylation motif. The partner CIPKs are Ser/Thr kinases with kinase and regulatory domains. Phosphorylation plays a major role in the functioning of the module. As the module has a functional kinase to transduce signal, it employs phosphorylation as a preferred mode for modulation of targets as well as its interaction with CBL. We analyze the data on the substrate regulation by the module from the perspective of substrate phosphorylation. We have also predicted some of the probable sites in the identified substrates that may be the target of the CIPK mediated phosphorylation. In addition, phosphatases have been implicated in reversing the CIPK mediated phosphorylation of substrates. Therefore, we have also presented the role of phosphatases in the modulation of the CBL–CIPK and its targets. We present here an overview of the phosphoregulation mechanism of the CBL–CIPK module.

GTR1 and GTR2 transporters are components of the source to sink translocation network of glucosinolates, which are major defence metabolites in the Brassicaceae. These transporters can be genetically manipulated for reduction of seed-glucosinolates without inhibiting glucosinolate biosynthesis, thereby maintaining the inherent defence potential of plants. However, the different roles of GTRs in influencing tissue-specific distribution of glucosinolates in agriculturally important Brassica crops are yet unknown. Here, we report functional characterization of two groups of glucosinolate transporters (GTR1 and GTR2) from Brassica juncea based on gene expression data, biochemical analysis, gene-complementation studies in GTR-deficient mutants and RNAi-based knockdown followed by insect feeding experiments. Although both GTRs showed ubiquitous expression patterns and broad substrate specificity, the single-gene knockdown lines displayed different phenotypes. The GTR2-knockdown plants showed a significant reduction of glucosinolates in seeds and a higher accumulation in leaves and pods, while the GTR1-knockdown plants displayed a smaller reduction of glucosinolates in seeds and significantly lower glucosinolate levels in leaves. Consequently, knockdown of GTR2 resulted in higher resistance towards the generalist pest, Spodoptera litura. Overall, our study highlights the distinctive roles of B. juncea GTRs in tissue-specific accumulation of glucosinolates and the potential for manipulating GTR2 for enhanced nutrition and plant defence.

No abstract

Background: Glucosinolates are an important class of secondary metabolites characteristic to the order Brassicales. They are known to play a major role in plant defense and from the human perspective, can be anticarcinogenic or antinutritive. GTRs are plasma-membrane localized high affinity glucosinolate transporters, which are important components of the source (leaf) to sink (seed) translocation of intact glucosinolates in members of Brassicaceae family. GTRs are identified as major candidates for Brassica crop improvement, thus dictating a need for their functional characterization. However, currently there are limitations in availability of heterologous assay systems for functional characterization of plant secondary metabolite transporters. To date, the animal-based Xenopus oocyte system is the best established heterologous system for functional characterization of these transporters. Inherent biochemical and physiological attributes unique to the plant membranes necessitate the need for developing plant-based transporters assay systems as well. Methods: In this study, Agrobacterium mediated transformation was used to develop GTR expressing cotton cell lines (CCL-1) for functional characterization of the Arabidopsis high affinity glucosinolate transporters, AtGTR1 and AtGTR2. Following sub-cellular localization of AtGTRs, we standardized the glucosinolate uptake assays using cell suspension cultures of AtGTR expressing CCL-1 its requirement of pH, salt, and time based glucosinolate uptake. Using the GTR expressing CCL-1, we subsequently performed kinetic analysis of AtGTR1 and AtGTR2 for different glucosinolate substrates, sinigrin, gluconapin and sinalbin. Results: Several clones expressing each of AtGTR1 and AtGTR2 were obtained showing high level of GTR expression and were maintained through regular sub-culturing. Both AtGTR1 and AtGTR2 are predominantly plasma-localized proteins when overexpressed in CCL-1 cells. Uptake assays were standardized, suggesting that glucosinolate uptake of GTR expressing CCL-1 is robust within the physiological pH range 5-6, and at lower concentration of nitrate salts. GTR expressing CCL-1 cells show increasing glucosinolate accumulation in time course experiment. Kinetic studies over a wide glucosinolate concentrations (10-800 µM) revealed that our novel assay system displayed robust GTR-mediated uptake of different glucosinolates and unambiguously helps elucidate the saturable kinetics of GTRs. Our system confirms the high affinity of AtGTRs for both aliphatic and aromatic glucosinolates. Conclusion: The transporter assay system described in this study holds potential for studying sub-functionalization amongst GTR homologs present across Brassicaceae family. The fast growing CCL-1 cells, confer the benefits of an in vitro system for quick assays and is plant based thus enabling optimal expression without sequence modifications. The efficient functioning of the GTR transporters in the heterologous CCL-1 opens the possibility of using this plant cell suspension system for fun...

<p>Glucosinolates (GS) are amino acid derived secondary metabolites present specifically in Brassicaceae family. The effect of altitude (2800 m - 4000 m) on GS contents and seed quality characteristics in radish (Raphanus sativus L.) was investigated. The total GS in radish seed was 147.5±21.5 μmol/g DW, which included five aliphatic and four indolic GS compounds. Increasing altitude was related linearly to increase in total GS contents (R2 = 0.759). Among individual GS, glucoraphanin and glucoraphenin showed consistently increasing trend with altitude. Increasing altitude is related linearly to increase in 100 seed weight (R2 = 0.266) and seed yield per plant (R2 = 0.849). A steady decreasing trend was observed in seed moisture content (R2 = 0.831) and siliqua length (R2 = 786) with increasing altitude. Altitude of plant origin was positively correlated with GS contents (r = 0.900, p≤ 0.01), seed weight per plant (r = 0.919, p≤ 0.01) and geometric mean diameter (r = 0.661, p≤ 0.01), and negatively correlated with siliqua length (r = -0.880, p≤ 0.01), moisture content (r = -0.884, p≤ 0.01) and seed vigour index (r = -0.547, p≤ 0.01). Our results indicate that the concentration of GS in radish seed and seed quality traits can be significantly increased by growing plants at higher altitude.</p>