At the end of the 1970s otter surveys were developed to study the distribution of the Eurasian otter Lutra lutra. The method was quickly adopted and expanded to include other species of otter. Different methods to estimate otter density were also used. There is some uncertainty, however, as to the signi®cance and precision of the results. Otter surveys, radio-tracking studies and otter censuses (tracks and visual) were conducted in the same areas simultaneously. Comparison of the home ranges of otters tagged with transmitters with the results from otter surveys carried out in the same areas showed very similar otter distribution. Some 71% of those sites examined in which only one otter lived were positive, and 97% of those sites with two or more otters. Differences were found between different watercourses. In small or average sites with waterways, one single otter was capable of marking many kilometres so that it could be detected in most of the conventional 600 m sites (here 71% of sites). The data obtained by radio-tracking showed that almost all otters can be seen by experienced observers, con®rming the validity of visual censuses. A high correlation was found between the number of otters seen during visual censuses and the number of otters detected by means of the length of their footprints. Using new and old tracks (2-days-old or more) the number of otters was overestimated.

The efficacy and safety of the combination of medetomidine and ketamine was examined in order to establish an adequate chemical immobilization protocol in the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) for use during translocation projects in Spain. Thirty-eight Eurasian otters ranging in body mass from 3 to 8.7 kg (mean 5.3 kg) were successfully anesthetized on 82 occasions. The dosage of ketamine was 5.1+/-0.8 (3.4-6.6) mg/kg (mean +/- SD; range) combined with medetomidine at a dosage of 51+/-8 Rg/kg (34-66 microg/kg). In most cases anaesthetic effect occurred within 3 min and the mean induction time was 5.5+/-3.2 min. The mean pulse rate was 95 beats/min. The mean respiratory rate was 32 respirations/min while the relative oxyhemoglobin saturation was 93%. According to these results, this anesthetic protocol is considered safe and can be recommended in wild caught Eurasian otters for immobilization during translocation projects. It is safe, rapid and can be reversed when needed with atipamezole. However caution is required as heart depression resulting in bradychardia may occur.

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The European landscape is changing and new opportunities for conservation are arising. The main driver of this change is an unprecedented shift in agricultural practices that started in the mid-twentieth century. As a result, shepherds and small-scale farmers release nearly 1 million ha of land from agriculture, each year. Although land abandonment is often seen as a major socio-economic problem, it could also be an opportunity for a new rural development based on nature and wild values. This idea can be further enhanced by the comeback of a number of iconic wildlife species, by an increased network of protected areas, by better legislation and enforcement, and a more favourable environment policy. Rewilding Europe responds to these major changes in the European landscape by ceasing this opportunity for both the European natural heritage and Europeans. The initiative aims to rewild 1 million ha of land by 2022, creating ten wildlife and wilderness areas all across Europe. Besides the ecological benefits of rewilding abandoned landscapes, wild values can create new opportunities for entrepreneurship in these areas, while a restored and preserved wildlife will attract many visitors to watch, enjoy and experience the wild. Ultimately, a large-scale shift in land use across Europe towards wilder nature and innovative ways to use this resource for employment and subsistence could be achieved, thus turning threats and problems into opportunities.

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