A series of articles in the Journal of Personality challenge several central assumptions of the reformulated learned helplessness model: that perceptions of uncontrollability, awareness of noncontingency between responses and outcomes, and attributions made about the outcome are necessary to explain learned helplessness effects. The present article addresses the validity of this challenge through a consideration of the methodology employed in these and other traditional studies of human helplessness conducted in the laboratory. We maintain that although performance deficits can be demonstrated reliably following exposure to uncontrollable outcomes, a number of factors other than expectations of future uncontroUability (i.e., learned helplessness) may be responsible for these effects. In addition, demands of the experimental situation may prevent subjects from admitting their true underlying thoughts and feelings regarding the manipulations employed. Finally, the current use of artificial laboratory paradigms may unnecessarily restrict the study of a complex psychological phenomenon such as learned helplessness. We suggest that future researchers employ paradigms that more closely parallel real world situations to which they hope to generalize, or utilize naturally occurring uncontrollable life events to study the problem. In addition, we argue that future research should broaden its focus beyond attributions to explore other mediators of human helplessness.During the past 15 years, the theory of learned helplessness has captured the attention of researchers from a number of divisions within psychology. The original model (Seligman, 1975) was developed by experimental psychologists from studies using infrahuman

This study examined some proposed influences on adolescents' ongoing stream of consciousness: closure or problem resolution ("Zeigarnik effect"), recent stressful parental experience, and as a personality predisposition, long-standing interpersonal conflict with a parent. Present stress was manipulated by having 96 undergraduates simulate coercive confrontation, collaborative confrontation, or collaborative decision making with a parent (the first experimental factor) under conditions of resolved or unresolved outcome (the second factor). Subjects then participated in a 20-minute thought-sampling session that was scored for repetitive thought. The main result of the 3X2 analysis of covariance was Type of Confrontation Process X Degree of Long-standing Interpersonal Stress (the covariate) interaction, indicating the influence of personal background variables on present emotional arousal and subsequent repetitive thought. Lack of closure alone influenced recurrent thought only at low levels of stress. The results clarify the relationship of some of the variables in Pope and Singer's model for the regulation of continuous consciousness and illustrate Lazarus's concept of latent emotionality as a determinant of the stress response.

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Although the American College of Radiology, the National Cancer Institute, and the American Cancer Society recommend screening mammography for women more than 40 years old, there is little compliance with these recommendations. Primary-care physicians are often reluctant to refer patients for the procedure, whereas the patients are usually willing to undergo the procedure. This survey documents the underuse of screening mammography by family physicians who are members of the Michigan Academy of Family Physicians. The underuse of mammography by this physician sample was due to two main factors: The physicians perceived far more disadvantages than advantages with mammography and perceived problems (with, e.g., equipment, effectiveness, and patient acceptance) as pervasive. To change the attitudes and referral behavior of family physicians, one must take into account the specific, negative perceptions of the procedure and place an emphasis on the initial referral, since subsequent referrals are easier to implement.

The early detection of breast cancer is promoted by the American Cancer Society (ACS) and the American College of Radiology (ACR) by encouraging the regular use of three types of screening: breast self-examination (BSE), the clinical breast examination, and mammography. In August 1983, the ACS publicized seven recommendations pertaining to screening, including a revised statement about the routine use of mammography for women between the ages of 40 and 49 years. In response to the ACS statement, the present study assessed compliance with the updated recommendations for all three types of screening. The results show reasonable rates of compliance for the BSE (53%-69%) and clinical examination (70%-78%). In contrast, only 19% of the women between the ages of 35 and 49 and 25% of the women older than 50 reported complying with the recommendation to undergo one baseline screening mammogram. In addition, only 9% of the mammograms were obtained for the early detection of disease, which is the rationale for the recommendation. In fact, it appears that mammography is being performed mainly for the diagnosis of symptomatic women instead of the screening of asymptomatic women. Some implications for health education by physicians and the professional education by physicians and the professional education of physicians in the use of mammography are discussed.