Aim To explore the breadth of pediatric neurological conditions for which neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) has been studied. Method Databases (PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Embase) were searched from 2000 to 2020, using the search terms ‘neuromuscular electrical stimulation’ OR ‘functional electrical stimulation’ with at least one of the words ‘pediatric OR child OR children OR adolescent’, and without the words ‘dysphagia OR implanted OR enuresis OR constipation’. Articles focused on adults or individuals with cerebral palsy (CP) were excluded. Results Thirty‐five studies met the inclusion criteria, with a total of 353 pediatric participants (293 unique participants; mean age 7y 4mo, range 1wk–38y). NMES was applied in a range of pediatric conditions other than CP, including stroke, spinal cord injury, myelomeningocele, scoliosis, congenital clubfoot, obstetric brachial plexus injury, genetic neuromuscular diseases, and other neuromuscular conditions causing weakness. Interpretation All 35 studies concluded that NMES was well‐tolerated and most studies suggested that NMES could augment traditional therapy methods to improve strength. Outcome measurements were heterogeneous. Further research on NMES with larger, randomized studies will help clarify its potential to improve physiology and mobility in pediatric patients with neuromuscular conditions. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) appears to be tolerated by pediatric patients. NMES shows potential for augmenting recovery in pediatric patients with a range of rehabilitation needs.

BACKGROUND Value in healthcare has been defined as the health outcome per dollar of cost expended. However, the barrier to achieving the implementation of value-based health care (VBHC) lies in its many structural, technological, and economic challenges. Six steps have been identified by the early proponents of VBHC to move towards a high-value healthcare delivery system: organizing integrated practice units (IPUs), measuring cost/outcomes for patients, moving to bundled payments, integrating care delivery, expanding care services, and enabling a suitable technology platform. Blockchain, given its unique properties of decentralization, data storage, and user platform, shows promise as a technology that may help implement the steps to achieve VBHC. In this paper we turn to the literature surrounding blockchain technology to highlight and summarize existing and theoretical use cases that address one or more of these steps. OBJECTIVE Describe blockchain-based solutions that can be utilized for implementing steps to achieve value-based health care. METHODS Utilizing PRISMA methodology, a systematic review of blockchain articles pertaining to value-based care delivery using PubMed, IEEE Xplore, and Business Source Complete was performed from March and April of 2022 with no limitations on publication date. Articles included must 1) pertain to blockchain in healthcare and 2) include either an existing or theoretical/future use case for blockchain in implementing one of the six steps to achieve value-based healthcare as defined by Teisberg and Porter. RESULTS A total of 357 articles were identified from all three databases (87 from PubMed, 259 from IEEE Xplore, and 11 from Business Source Complete) with 288 articles excluded. There were 69 articles included in the review with all of them (69) discussing interoperability and 18 discussing scalability. No articles were found pertaining to the other 4 steps to achieve value-based health defined by Teisberg and Porter. CONCLUSIONS This study examined the literature for articles pertaining to blockchain and value-based healthcare. While blockchain is early in its development as a technology, there is a significant body of research discussing how blockchain’s interoperability can be leveraged to improve value-based delivery systems. There is still a lack of research evaluating other core areas of a value-based delivery system, particularly relating to integrated practice units, measuring costs and outcomes, and bundled payments.