The concept of washback, or backwash, defined as the influence of testing on instruction, is discussed with relation to second language teaching and testing. While the literature of second language testing suggests that tests are commonly considered to be powerful determiners of what happens in the classroom, Lhe concept of washback is not well defined. The first part of the discussion focuses on the concept, including several different interpretations of the phenomenon. It is found to be a far more complex topic than suggested by the basic washback hypothesis, which is also discussed and outlined. The literature on education in general is then reviewed for additional information on the issues involved. Very little research was found that directly related to the subject, but several studies are highlighted. Following this, empirical research on language testing is consulted for further insight. Studies in Turkey, the Netherlands, and Nepal are discussed. Finally, areas for additional research are proposed, including further definition of washback, motivation and performance, the role of educational setting, research methodology, learner perceptions, and explanatory factors. A 39-item bibliography is appended. (MSE)

Language tests are frequently criticized for having negative impact on teaching — so-called 'negative washback'. Some writers believe that it is possible to bring about positive change in language teaching by changing tests. However, neither positive nor negative washback on classrooms has been established empirically by observation of classrooms. This article seeks to redress this situation by reporting on an innovative study of the impact of a new English examination in Sri Lanka on language teaching. Although impact is demonstrated on the content of teaching, no evidence was found for any influence of the test on how teachers taught. It is argued that studies of washback need to relate teachers' attitudes to and understanding of exams to observations of classrooms in order to understand why teachers teach the way they do, and why tests might not have the impact that is frequently asserted. It is concluded that the supposition of washback as currently formulated is an oversimplified account of the relationship between tests and teaching and it is suggested that the complexity of that relationship, and of curricular innovation more generally, needs further exploration. I IntroductionIt is common to claim the existence of washback (the impact of a test on teaching) and to declare that tests can be powerful determiners, both positively and negatively, of what happens in classrooms. Some (Morrow, 1986;Frederiksen and Collins, 1989) have even suggested that a test's validity should be measured by the degree to which it has a beneficial impact on teaching. However, in a recent article, Alderson and Wall (1993) have questioned these claims, and have pointed out that very little empirical research has been conducted to establish the influence of a language test on language teaching. They explore the concept of washback, and suggest that the Washback Hypothesis (in its simplest form, that tests influence teaching) is in need of considerable refinement. They suggest a number of possible alternative formulations, critically review the few studies that have been conducted to date, and make a series of suggestions for further research.The purpose of this article is to describe research in Sri Lanka investigating the impact of a new examination on English language

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ETS is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action Employer.As part of its educational and social mission and in fulfilling the organization's non-profit Charter and Bylaws, ETS has and continues to learn from and also to lead research that furthers educational and measurement research to advance quality and equity in education and assessment for all users of the organization's products and services.Copyright © 2006 by ETS. All rights reserved.No part of this report may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Violators will be prosecuted in accordance with both U.S. and international copyright laws. ETS, the ETS logos, GRADUATE RECORD EXAMINATIONS, GRE, POWERPREP, TOEFL, the TOEFL logo, TSE, and TWE are registered trademarks of Educational Testing Service (ETS). The TEST OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE, TEST OF SPOKEN ENGLISH, and TEST OF WRITTEN ENGLISH are trademarks of ETS.College Board is a registered trademark of the College Entrance Examination Board. AbstractThe purpose of this report is to present the findings of the first phase in a longitudinal study of the impact of changes in the TOEFL® test on teaching and learning in test preparation classrooms. Observations were carried out and interviews conducted with teachers, students, and directors of studies at 10 institutions in six countries in Central and Eastern Europe. The findings constitute a baseline against which finding from future phases can be compared. The report includes an analysis of the types of impact originally envisaged by advisers to the new TOEFL and a discussion of factors in the educational context that may influence the types of impact that may appear once the new test is operational. ETS administers the TOEFL program under the general direction of a policy board that was established by, and is affiliated with, the sponsoring organizations. Members of the TOEFL Board (previously the Policy Council) represent the College Board, the GRE Board, and such institutions and agencies as graduate schools of business, two-year colleges and nonprofit educational exchange agencies.A continuing program of research related to the TOEFL test is carried out in consultation with the TOEFL Committee of Examiners. Its members include representatives of the TOEFL Board and distinguished English as a second language specialists from the academic community. The Committee advises the TOEFL program about research needs and, through the research subcommittee, reviews and approves proposals for funding and reports for publication. Members of the Committee of Examiners serve four-year terms at the invitation of the Board; the chair of the committee serves on the Board.Because the studies are specific to the TOEFL test and the testing program, most of the actual research is conducted by ETS staff rather than by outside researchers. Many projects require the cooperation of other institutions, ...

The nature and validation of placement tests is rarely discussed in the language testing literature, yet placement tests are probably one of the commonest forms of tests used within institutions which are not designed by individual teachers and which are used to make decisions across the institution rather than within individual classes. Questions to be asked in the validation and evaluation of any placement test include the following: Does the placement test correctly identify those students who most need English and study skills classes? Do the students who take the test feel that their language has been accurately measured? Is the content of the test appro priate to the uses made of the tests? Is the test reliable? This paper reports on an attempt to validate an institutional placement test at Lancaster University. After presenting the results of the study, the paper comments both on the validity and reliability of the test, and on the wider issues that influence how validation studies of placement tests can be carried out.