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_________________________________________________________________ AbstractGeneral atmospheric circulation is the system of atmospheric motions over the Earth on the scale of the whole globe. Two main types of circulation have been identified: zonal -characterized by low amplitude waves in the troposphere moving quickly from west to east, and meridional with stationary high amplitude waves when the meridional transfer is intensified. The prevailing type of circulation is related to global climate. Based on many years of observations, certain "circulation epochs" have been defined when the same type of circulation prevails for years or decades. Here we study the relation between long-term changes in solar activity and prevailing type of atmospheric circulation, using NAO index reconstructed for the last four centuries as a proxy for large-scale atmospheric circulation. We find that when the southern solar hemisphere is more active, increasing solar activity in the secular solar cycle results in increasing zonality of the circulation, while when the northern solar hemisphere is more active, increasing solar activity increases meridional circulation. In an attempt to explain the observations, we compare the shortterm reaction of NAO and NAM indices to different solar drivers: powerful solar flares, high speed solar wind streams, and magnetic clouds. ___________________________________________________________________________

This study presents a latent (item response theory–like) framework of a recently developed classical approach to test scoring, equating, and item analysis, referred to as D-scoring method. Specifically, (a) person and item parameters are estimated under an item response function model on the D-scale (from 0 to 1) using marginal maximum-likelihood estimation and (b) analytic expressions are provided for item information function, test information function, and standard error of estimation for D-scores obtained under the proposed latent treatment of the D-scoring method. The results from a simulation study reveal very good recovery of item and person parameters via the marginal maximum-likelihood estimation method. Discussion and recommendations for practice are provided.

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Many models of cognitive diagnosis, including the least squares distance model (LSDM), work under the conjunctive assumption that a correct item response occurs when all latent attributes required by the item are correctly performed. This article proposes a disjunctive version of the LSDM under which the correct item response occurs when at least one attribute is correctly applied. Also, under both the conjunctive and disjunctive versions of the LSDM, this article demonstrates an approach to estimating the conditional probability that (a) a specific pattern of p attributes, (b) exactly p attributes, and (c) at least p attributes will be correctly performed across locations on the logit scale in the item response theory under the one-, two-, or three-parameter logistic model. Such information can be useful for interpretations and decisions based on a person's performance on attributes that govern the correct responses on binary items under unidimensional item response theory calibrations for assessment in education, psychology, and other fields.Cognitive diagnosis deals with identification, validation, and analysis of latent attributes that underlie responses on items of assessment instruments in psychology, education, and other behavioral fields. Typically, the item responses are scored on a binary