No abstract

In this paper, we describe the regulatory roles of VisN, VisR and Rem in the expression of flagellar, motility and chemotaxis genes in Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar viciae strains VF39SM and 3841. Individual mutations in the genes encoding these proteins resulted in a loss of motility and an absence of flagella, indicating that these regulatory genes are essential for flagellar synthesis and function. Transcriptional experiments involving gusA-gene fusions in wild-type and mutant backgrounds were performed to identify the genes under VisN/R and Rem regulation. Results showed that the chemotaxis and motility genes of R. leguminosarum could be separated into two groups: one group under VisN/R-Rem regulation and another group that is independent of this regulation. VisN and VisR regulate the expression of rem, while Rem positively regulates the expression of flaA, flaB, flaC, flaD, motA, motB, che1 and mcpD. All of these genes except mcpD are located within the main motility and chemotaxis gene cluster of R. leguminosarum. Other chemotaxis and motility genes, which are found outside of the main motility gene cluster (che2 operon, flaH for VF39SM, and flaG) or are plasmid-borne (flaE and mcpC), are not part of the VisN/R-Rem regulatory cascade. In addition, all genes exhibited the same regulation pattern in 3841 and in VF39SM, except flaE and flaH. flaE is not regulated by VisN/R-Rem in 3841 but it is repressed by Rem in VF39SM. flaH is under VisN/R-Rem regulation in 3841, but not in VF39SM. A kinetics experiment demonstrated that a subset of the flagellar genes is continuously expressed in all growth phases, indicating the importance of continuous motility for R. leguminosarum under free-living conditions. On the other hand, motility is repressed under symbiotic conditions. Nodulation experiments showed that the transcriptional activators VisN and Rem are dramatically downregulated in the nodules, suggesting that the symbiotic downregulation of motility-related genes could be mediated by repressing the expression of VisN/R and Rem.

The bacterial cell envelope is of critical importance to the function and survival of the cell; it acts as a barrier against harmful toxins while allowing the flow of nutrients into the cell. It also serves as a point of physical contact between a bacterial cell and its host. Hence, the cell envelope of Rhizobium leguminosarum is critical to cell survival under both free-living and symbiotic conditions. Transposon mutagenesis of R. leguminosarum strain 3841 followed by a screen to isolate mutants with defective cell envelopes led to the identification of a novel conserved operon (RL3499-RL3502) consisting of a putative moxR-like AAA ؉ ATPase, a hypothetical protein with a domain of unknown function (designated domain of unknown function 58), and two hypothetical transmembrane proteins. Mutation of genes within this operon resulted in increased sensitivity to membranedisruptive agents such as detergents, hydrophobic antibiotics, and alkaline pH. On minimal media, the mutants retain their rod shape but are roughly 3 times larger than the wild type. On media containing glycine or peptides such as yeast extract, the mutants form large, distorted spheres and are incapable of sustained growth under these culture conditions. Expression of the operon is maximal during the stationary phase of growth and is reduced in a chvG mutant, indicating a role for this sensor kinase in regulation of the operon. Our findings provide the first functional insight into these genes of unknown function, suggesting a possible role in cell envelope development in Rhizobium leguminosarum. Given the broad conservation of these genes among the Alphaproteobacteria, the results of this study may also provide insight into the physiological role of these genes in other Alphaproteobacteria, including the animal pathogen Brucella.

BackgroundRhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae establishes symbiotic nitrogen fixing partnerships with plant species belonging to the Tribe Vicieae, which includes the genera Vicia, Lathyrus, Pisum and Lens. Motility and chemotaxis are important in the ecology of R. leguminosarum to provide a competitive advantage during the early steps of nodulation, but the mechanisms of motility and flagellar assembly remain poorly studied. This paper addresses the role of the seven flagellin genes in producing a functional flagellum.ResultsR. leguminosarum strains 3841 and VF39SM have seven flagellin genes (flaA, flaB, flaC, flaD, flaE, flaH, and flaG), which are transcribed separately. The predicted flagellins of 3841 are highly similar or identical to the corresponding flagellins in VF39SM. flaA, flaB, flaC, and flaD are in tandem array and are located in the main flagellar gene cluster. flaH and flaG are located outside of the flagellar/motility region while flaE is plasmid-borne. Five flagellin subunits (FlaA, FlaB, FlaC, FlaE, and FlaG) are highly similar to each other, whereas FlaD and FlaH are more distantly related. All flagellins exhibit conserved amino acid residues at the N- and C-terminal ends and are variable in the central regions. Strain 3841 has 1-3 plain subpolar flagella while strain VF39SM exhibits 4-7 plain peritrichous flagella. Three flagellins (FlaA/B/C) and five flagellins (FlaA/B/C/E/G) were detected by mass spectrometry in the flagellar filaments of strains 3841 and VF39SM, respectively. Mutation of flaA resulted in non-motile VF39SM and extremely reduced motility in 3841. Individual mutations of flaB and flaC resulted in shorter flagellar filaments and consequently reduced swimming and swarming motility for both strains. Mutant VF39SM strains carrying individual mutations in flaD, flaE, flaH, and flaG were not significantly affected in motility and filament morphology. The flagellar filament and the motility of 3841 strains with mutations in flaD and flaG were not significantly affected while flaE and flaH mutants exhibited shortened filaments and reduced swimming motility.ConclusionThe results obtained from this study demonstrate that FlaA, FlaB, and FlaC are major components of the flagellar filament while FlaD and FlaG are minor components for R. leguminosarum strains 3841 and VF39SM. We also observed differences between the two strains, wherein FlaE and FlaH appear to be minor components of the flagellar filaments in VF39SM but these flagellin subunits may play more important roles in 3841. This paper also demonstrates that the flagellins of 3841 and VF39SM are possibly glycosylated.

We have characterized swarming motility in Rhizobium leguminosarum strains 3841 and VF39SM. Swarming was dependent on growth on energy-rich media, and both agar concentration and incubation temperature were critical parameters for surface migration. A cell density-dependent lag period was observed before swarming motility was initiated. Surface migration began 3-5 days after inoculation and a full swarming phenotype was observed 3 weeks after inoculation. The swarming front was preceded by a clear extracellular matrix, from which we failed to detect surfactants. The edge of the swarming front formed by VF39SM was characterized by hyperflagellated cells arranged in rafts, whereas the cells at the point of inoculation were indistinguishable from vegetative cells. Swarmer cells formed by 3841, in contrast, showed a minor increase in flagellation, with each swarmer cell exhibiting an average of three flagellar filaments, compared with an average of two flagella per vegetative cell. Reflective of their hyperflagellation, the VF39SM swarmer cells demonstrated an increased expression of flagellar genes. VF39SM swarmed better than 3841 under all the conditions tested, and the additional flagellation in VF39SM swarm cells may contribute to this difference. Metabolism of the supplemented carbon source appeared to be necessary for surface migration as strains incapable of utilizing the carbon source failed to swarm. We also observed that swarmer cells have increased resistance to several antibiotics.