Advances in genomics have expedited the improvement of several agriculturally important crops but similar efforts in wheat (Triticum spp.) have been more challenging. This is largely owing to the size and complexity of the wheat genome1, and the lack of genome-assembly data for multiple wheat lines2,3. Here we generated ten chromosome pseudomolecule and five scaffold assemblies of hexaploid wheat to explore the genomic diversity among wheat lines from global breeding programs. Comparative analysis revealed extensive structural rearrangements, introgressions from wild relatives and differences in gene content resulting from complex breeding histories aimed at improving adaptation to diverse environments, grain yield and quality, and resistance to stresses4,5. We provide examples outlining the utility of these genomes, including a detailed multi-genome-derived nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat protein repertoire involved in disease resistance and the characterization of Sm16, a gene associated with insect resistance. These genome assemblies will provide a basis for functional gene discovery and breeding to deliver the next generation of modern wheat cultivars.

Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is one of the richest plant sources of omega-3 fatty acids praised for their health benefits. In this study, the extent of the genetic variability of genes encoding stearoyl-ACP desaturase (SAD), and fatty acid desaturase 2 (FAD2) and 3 (FAD3) was determined by sequencing the six paralogous genes from 120 flax accessions representing a broad range of germplasm including some EMS mutant lines. A total of 6 alleles for sad1 and sad2, 21 for fad2a, 5 for fad2b, 15 for fad3a and 18 for fad3b were identified. Deduced amino acid sequences of the alleles predicted 4, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7 isoforms, respectively. Allele frequencies varied greatly across genes. Fad3a, with 110 SNPs and 19 indels, and fad3b, with 50 SNPs and 5 indels, showed the highest levels of genetic variations. While most of the SNPs and all the indels were silent mutations, both genes carried nonsense SNP mutations resulting in premature stop codons, a feature not observed in sad and fad2 genes. Some alleles and isoforms discovered in induced mutant lines were absent in the natural germplasm. Correlation of these genotypic data with fatty acid composition data of 120 flax accessions phenotyped in six field experiments revealed statistically significant effects of some of the SAD and FAD isoforms on fatty acid composition, oil content and iodine value. The novel allelic variants and isoforms identified for the six desaturases will be a resource for the development of oilseed flax with unique and useful fatty acid profiles.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00122-013-2161-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

With 45 % or more oil content that contains more than 55 % alpha linolenic (LIN) acid, linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) is one of the richest plant sources of this essential fatty acid. Fatty acid desaturases 2 (FAD2) and 3 (FAD3) are the main enzymes responsible for the Δ12 and Δ15 desaturation in planta. In linseed, the oilseed morphotype of flax, two paralogous copies, and several alleles exist for each gene. Here, we cloned three alleles of FAD2A, four of FAD2B, six of FAD3A, and seven of FAD3B into a pYES vector and transformed all 20 constructs and an empty construct in yeast. The transformants were induced in the presence of oleic (OLE) acid substrate for FAD2 constructs and linoleic (LIO) acid for FAD3. Conversion rates of OLE acid into LIO acid and LIO acid into LIN acid were measured by gas chromatography. Conversion rate of FAD2 exceeded that of FAD3 enzymes with FAD2B having a conversion rate approximately 10 % higher than FAD2A. All FAD2 isoforms were active, but significant differences existed between isoforms of both FAD2 enzymes. Two FAD3A and three FAD3B isoforms were not functional. Some nonfunctional enzymes resulted from the presence of nonsense mutations causing premature stop codons, but FAD3B-C and FAD3B-F seem to be associated with single amino acid changes. The activity of FAD3A-C was more than fivefold greater than the most common isoform FAD3A-A, while FAD3A-F was fourfold greater. Such isoforms could be incorporated into breeding lines to possibly further increase the proportion of LIN acid in linseed.

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Little is known about the relationship between expression levels of fatty acid desaturase genes during seed development and fatty acid (FA) composition in flax. In the present study, we looked at promoter structural variations of six FA desaturase genes and their relative expression throughout seed development. Computational analysis of the nucleotide sequences of the sad1, sad2, fad2a, fad2b, fad3a and fad3b promoters showed several basic transcriptional elements including CAAT and TATA boxes, and several putative target-binding sites for transcription factors, which have been reported to be involved in the regulation of lipid metabolism. Using semi-quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR, the expression patterns throughout seed development of the six FA desaturase genes were measured in six flax genotypes that differed for FA composition but that carried the same desaturase isoforms. FA composition data were determined by phenotyping the field grown genotypes over four years in two environments. All six genes displayed a bell-shaped pattern of expression peaking at 20 or 24 days after anthesis. Sad2 was the most highly expressed. The expression of all six desaturase genes did not differ significantly between genotypes (P = 0.1400), hence there were no correlations between FA desaturase gene expression and variations in FA composition in relatively low, intermediate and high linolenic acid genotypes expressing identical isoforms for all six desaturases. These results provide further clues towards understanding the genetic factors responsible for FA composition in flax.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s13353-014-0222-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.