A single polymer electrolyte fuel cell has been directly hybridized to a stack of three supercapacitors: the system formed has been investigated in operation in the fuel cell dynamic load cycle, which emulates the energy demand in transported applications. Comparison with regular, non‐hybridized fuel cell operation was analyzed in terms of hydrogen consumption in the case that the gas flow rates are directly controlled by cell current during the cycles with constant gas stoichiometric factors: the smoothening effect of the supercapacitors in the overall circuit leads to more even profiles of the cell current and voltage in the cycle, which allows safer and better hydrogen consumption management in this regime: the average H2 consumption per cycle could be reduced by 16% without change of the overall energy produced. Besides, the runs were conducted over more than 1,300 hours with evaluation of the fuel cell performance and capacity at regular intervals, with or without hybridization. A moderate positive effect of hybridization was observed in the time variations of the voltage‐current curves and the fuel crossover. However, the resistances for ohmic, charge transfer and diffusion phenomena, were not so much improved by the hybridization, in spite of less sharp voltage.

and 10,000 MW by 2022. India is on track to meet the first goal-currently there are 351 MW of approved CSP projects in Gujarat and another 30 MW in Rajasthan.SWH technology presents an opportunity to avoid using electricity or liquefied petroleum gas for heating water in India. It has applications in the residential, commercial, and industrial sectors. India has approximately 3.5 million m 2 of installed SWH collector area out of an estimated potential of 40 million m 2 . Several programs are in place to accelerate deployment of SWH, including the provision of low-interest loans and incorporation of SWH into the building code. Chapter 5, Small Hydro, presents the status of small hydropower in India, defined by the Government of India as hydropower plants up to 25 MW, including the identified potential and contribution to India's rural electrification efforts.MNRE has estimated India's small hydro potential at more than 15,000 MW and is constantly revising this number upwards as new sites are identified; more than 40% of this potential has been identified in four northern, mountainous states. Capital incentives are in place to support installation of new small hydropower plants, as well as to renovate and modernize existing plants. In addition to direct subsidies at the state and national level, small hydro plants may also qualify for low-interest loans and income tax exemptions. CERC also offers preferential tariffs for small hydro plants with the tariff amount and time period varied depending on project size and location.High capacity factors have been observed at small hydro plants in remote, mountainous regions of India, and small hydro has the lowest levelized costs of energy of any renewable technology in India. These factors have contributed to small hydro's importance in India's rural electrification efforts, with both federal and state programs supporting small hydro as a means of supplying electricity to villages where providing access to the central grid is challenging. Chapter 6, Bioenergy, covers bioenergy in India and discusses the status and potential for biogas, solid biomass, and biofuels.Traditional biomass, such as wood and cow dung, have historically played an important part in India's energy supply, and they still supply cooking energy to almost all of India's rural population. By utilizing organic waste and agricultural output, India can incorporate modern bioenergy as a substantial part into its future energy mix.There are approximately 4 million installed household biogas plants in India with almost 4,000 additional units supplying household clusters or villages; cattle manure is the primary feedstock for these household plants. MNRE estimates that available cattle manure could support approximately 12 million household biogas plants. Larger-scale biogas facilities use industrial wastewater to generate electricity, and the 48 such plants in India have an aggregate installed capacity of 70 MW. MNRE estimates the total capacity potential for industrial biogas to be 1.3 GW. National and state...

Hybridization of a fuel cell (FC) with energy storage systems such as supercapacitors (SC) or batteries can make the fuel cell withstand the sudden fluctuations of the current. Moreover, direct hybridization of a FC with SCs (i.e. without power converters) has further proved out to be a better solution than the indirect mode (i.e. with power converters), in addition without inducing further ageing of the cell in non-steady operations. The present investigation was aimed at comparing the performance of the system in terms of yield and the component contributions of the fuel cell and the supercapacitor in power conversion on increasing the capacity of energy storage. A single 100 cm 2 cell was directly hybridized to one or three 3000 F SCs in standard fuel cell dynamic load cycling operation, simulating the energy demand in urban transport with current varying in the range 0-100 A. Upon comparing the hydrogen supply for the two configurations (1 or 3 SC), increasing the SC number decreased the hydrogen amount required in a cycle by approximately 5 %. This also enhanced the yield of the fuel cell and the hybrid source by 10 % and 16 % respectively. Moreover, increasing the SCs capacity reduces the power supplied by the FC in periods with high energy demand in cycling tests.