This paper evaluates Botswana's national branding using the Gilmore (2002) and the Echtner & Ritchie (2003) models. The methodology involved an examination of the extant literature to identifying key factors that influence brand perceptions for a nation and the nature of those factors. The findings showed that the Botswana branding incorporated most of the variables depicted in the Gilmore model. The nature of the variables chosen were also consistent with the Echtner and Ritchie model in the sense that it made use of functional and psychological characteristics and combined them in a holistic manner to come up with the slogan "our pride, your destination". The paper advises future researcher to empirically test the robustness of the Botswana brand in terms of its effectiveness on the ground.

Abstract

This study examines the trends in Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) inflows to Africa, with the ultimate aim of proposing implications for policy action. The main source of data for this study is the UNCTAD (2018) database which at the time of the study contained FDI data from 1990 to 2016. The findings show that, although Africa is in dire need for FDI due to scarcity of capital, it is not able to attract as much FDI compared to advanced countries and other developing regions. The little FDI that comes to Africa is concentrated sub-regionally and country-wise. Region-wise, most FDI is concentrated on Southern Africa followed by Northern Africa with East Africa and Central Africa at the bottom. Country-wise, the two main recipients of FDI in each sub-region are Angola and South Africa (Southern Africa); Egypt and Morocco (North Africa); Nigeria and Ghana (West Africa); Tanzania and Ethiopia (East Africa) and Congo and the Democratic Republic of Congo (Central Africa). The FDI that comes into the continent is further concentrated in the primary (extractive) sector. As a result the benefits to the region have not been as significant as in East Asia where FDI was mainly into the secondary (manufacturing) sector. It is concluded that, FDI is a growth point that countries can count on as a source of resources for development, however, Africa need to change the approach adopted in promoting FDI, which focuses on providing incentives to creating a domestic environment conducive to entrepreneurship and business in general.

No abstract

This study investigates the evolution of Free Economic Zones (FEZs) using the functional criteria. The methodology of the study involved analysis of the literature. The study makes five main revelations. First, the evolution of FEZ is in general consistent with theory of city life-cycle that states that a city will undergo different stages such as birth, growth, flourishing and decline. And at each stage there are several specific challenges concerning its industrial structure, enterprise structure, spatial structure and so on. Second, the study identifies five evolutionary phases of FEZs which are: Free Trade Zones, Export Processing Zones, Science Industrial Parks, Service Economic Zones and Special Economic Zones; each of these basic zones contain several variants. Third, as the typical FEZs evolve they change the focus of their functions both vertically and horizontally. In vertical terms the zones change the focus of their activities from trade related to manufacturing of the traded goods. In horizontal terms the zones expand their scope by embracing more sectors such as services, science and residential issues. Fourth, there is a progressively stronger orientation toward technology and skill intensive manufacturing and services. Fifth, FEZs are attractive to investors because of the existence of policy failures in the greater host economy: as policy reforms happen investors will see no need for staying in the FEZs and the relative significance of FEZs in economic terms can be expected to decline; at this point FEZ and non-FEZ firms would be treated equally. These findings lead to two general guidelines for sustainable zone development in a developing country context. First, policy makers should start by encouraging trade-intensive FEZ activities in the zones, followed by labor-intensive manufacturing; later on upgrade to technology-and skill-intensive manufacturing and services. Second, policy makers should encourage FDI in industries in which the country has comparative advantage; this increases the likelihood that development will be sustained long after FEZ incentives are removed and all firms are being treated equally in an economy.