In the present study, the psychometric properties of the German version of the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale (PTDS; A. Ehlers, R. Steil, H. Winter, & E. B. Foa, 1996) were evaluated in a sample of 143 trauma survivors. To investigate convergent and discriminant validity of this questionnaire, the authors assessed posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, depression symptoms, and social phobia. Internal consistencies of the PTDS and its subscales as well as their association with related measures show that the German PTDS is a reliable and valid instrument for the assessment of posttraumatic stress symptoms. A 3-factor structure was found that is, however, not exactly in concordance with the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., text rev.; American Psychiatric Association, 2000) formulation (Reexperiencing, Avoidance, and Hyperarousal) but rather comprises a Reexperiencing/Avoidance factor; an Emotional Numbing/Hyperarousal factor; and a 3rd factor, consisting of Hypervigilance and an Exaggerated Startle Response. The findings are discussed with respect to their equivalency to the original PTDS, core symptoms of PTSD, and desirable future research.
Incarcerated offenders are more likely to experience Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and associated symptoms than the general population. PTSD may develop from a variety of events, including being a victim of violence, witnessing violence, or from committing a violent offense. This study examined symptoms and predictors of PTSD in 150 male violent offenders. Participants recalled acts of reactive and instrumental violence, poorly recalled violence, and subjectively disturbing events (e.g., victim of violence), and rated each event for symptoms of PTSD using the Impact of Events Scale (IES). Subjectively disturbing events were associated with higher IES scores than the acts of violence. Hierarchical linear modeling showed that more recent events were associated with a greater number of trauma symptoms and peritraumatic dissociation was positively associated with trauma symptoms. As well, trauma symptoms were more likely to develop if the victim was a family member or a friend, as compared to a stranger or acquaintance. These results support the need for trauma-informed assessment and treatment for offenders. Knowing more about the predictors of trauma symptoms is a first step in effectively treating PTSD in this population.
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