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Mountain areas of Europe have been managed by humans for a long time, leading to a prevalence of semi-natural habitats in mountain landscapes today. These landscapes contain both natural and cultural heritage; however, natural and cultural heritage are rarely considered together when valuing landscapes and developing management plans in protected areas. Here we present a case study of seven protected areas in the mountains of Great Britain and Norway. We take a long-term perspective on landscape and land-use change and propose an integrated model of landscape valuation on the basis of combined natural and cultural heritage. Our model plots indicators of natural and cultural heritage along a gradient of land-use intensity, allowing simultaneous assessment and highlighting how valuation depends on what type of heritage is considered. We show that while contemporary land-use changes follow similar trajectories in Norway and Britain, different land-use histories mean that the loss of heritage differs between the regions. The model presented here thus allows for the consolidation of valuation based on both cultural and natural heritage in landscapes.

This account presents information on all aspects of the biology of Ulmus glabraHudson (wych elm) that are relevant to understanding its ecological characteristics and behaviour. The main topics are presented within the standard framework of the Biological Flora of the British Isles: distribution, habitat, communities, responses to biotic factors, responses to environment, structure and physiology, phenology, floral and seed characters, herbivores and disease, history and conservation.2. Ulmus glabra is a large forest tree, and often an important canopy tree in ancient and semi-natural woodlands. It is primarily native to the north and west of Britain and much of mainland Europe. It is the only elm native to Ireland. It is the most distinct of the British elms in that it rarely suckers and sets abundant viable seed.Although found on limestone screes and cliffs, and hedgerows, it is primarily a woodland tree, especially on moist, basic soils. In many secondary woodlands, it often co-occurs with Acer pseudoplatanus and has ecological needs that are similar to Fraxinus excelsior. 3.Ulmus glabra has clusters of c. 25 hermaphrodite flowers appearing before the leaves on previous year's growth. Seeds are wind-dispersed, falling in April to July, but remain viable for only a few days. Nevertheless, seedling establishment can be abundant. Hybridisation with other northern European elms is common but hybrids are notoriously difficult to identify and therefore probably under-recorded.4. The health and survival of wych elm in Europe has been seriously compromised since the 1970s due to Dutch elm disease caused by the fungus Ophiostoma novoulmi, transmitted by elm bark beetles (Scolytus spp.). To the south of its Scottish stronghold, many elms are reduced to small trees regrowing from basal sprouts or seeds. These trees tend to be reinfected once trunk diameter exceeds 10 cm.Fortunately for its long-term survival, seed production usually begins a number of years before they are reinfected.

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