The protein fraction of milk contains several components with physiological significance for the development of the newborn. Among them, immunomodulatory peptides and lactoferrin exemplify the complexity of biologically active substances of milk. Immunomodulatory peptides have latent activity within the native protein and are generated after proteolysis during gastrointestinal transit. Once they are generated, they modulate mucosal immunity, possibly by guiding the local immune system until it develops its full functionality. Lactoferrin is another milk bioactive compound with nutritional and health promoting properties; it modulates the microbial intestinal environment, displays anti-microbial activity against various pathogens and stimulates the establishment of beneficial microflora. The following overview focuses on the importance of immunomodulatory peptides and lactoferrin for the maturation of intestine and immune system that are functionally immature in the newborn.

Ochratoxin A (OTA), a mycotoxin frequently present in food and feedstuffs, produces a wide range of toxic effects, including cell death via lipid peroxidation. In one human and four animal cell lines we determined the half lethal concentration (LC 50 ) of OTA, its effect on reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and its ability to induce cytochrome p450 activity. We also examined the protective effect of atocopherol and all-trans-retinol in the most sensitive cell lines (i.e. bovine mammary epithelia, for which LC 50 was 0·8 mg/ml (24 h), and Madin Darby canine kidney, for which LC 50 was 4·3 mg/ml (48 h)). Pre-incubation for 3 h with either antioxidant significantly (P, 0·05) ameliorated the OTA-induced reduction in cell viability and significantly decreased (P, 0·05) ROS production. These findings indicate that oxidative stress is an important factor in OTA cytotoxicity. Supplementation with antioxidant molecules may counteract the shortterm toxicity of this mycotoxin.

We investigated the effects of rumen-protected choline (RPC) and vitamin E (VITE) administration on milk production and status of folate, vitamin B 12 and vitamin E during the periparturient period of dairy goats. Forty-eight Saanen multiparous goats were selected for the 72-day experiment, being moved to a maternity pen 30 days before expected parturition and assigned to one of the four experimental groups: control (CTR), no choline or vitamin E supplementation; choline (RPC), supplemented with 4 g/day choline chloride in rumen-protected form; vitamin E (VITE), supplemented with 200 IU/day vitamin E in rumen-protected form; and choline and vitamin E (RPCE), supplemented with 4 g/day RPC chloride and 200 IU/day vitamin E. Supplements were administered individually before the morning feed to ensure complete consumption, starting 30 days before kidding and continuing for 35 days after. During the experiment, milk yield and 4% fat-corrected milk (FCM) yield were, respectively, 210 and 350 g/day higher in RPC-supplemented goats than in non-supplemented goats. Milk fat concentration and fat yield were also increased by RPC treatment. Milk yield and composition were unaffected by vitamin E supplementation. There were no significant interactions between RPC and VITE for any of the variables measured. Plasma metabolites did not differ between treatments before and after kidding except that plasma folate at parturition was higher in RPC-supplemented goats. Neither choline nor vitamin E affected vitamin B 12 plasma concentrations, while a time effect was evident after the second week of lactation, when B 12 levels in each treatment group started to increase. Vitamin E administration resulted in plasma a-tocopherol levels that were 2 to 2.5 times higher than in non-supplemented goats. Overall, these results suggest that greater choline availability can improve milk production and methyl group metabolism in transition dairy goats.

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The occurrence and control of mycotoxins in feed and food are items of great interest to researchers, producers, manufacturers and regulatory agencies. In order to implement knowledge of control measures for mycotoxins in the entire food production chain, coordinated inspection programmes aimed to check the presence and concentration of mycotoxins in feedingstuffs are recommended by the Commission of the European Communities. Reliability of measured levels of mycotoxins in feed and food is greatly affected by the collection of representative samples. Because of the heterogeneous distribution of mycotoxins, the variability associated with a mycotoxin test procedure usually depends heavily on the sampling plan. European legislation dealing with sampling plans for mycotoxins in foodstuffs has been recently revised. The aim of the following overview is to discuss the role of sampling in mycotoxin-contaminated feed by considering the evolution of legislation dealing with sampling plans for food. A sampling procedure is a multistage process and consists of three distinct phases: sampling, sample preparation and analysis. The variability associated with each step of a sampling procedure and the aspects related to feedstuffs, matrix/mycotoxin combination and level of contamination are discussed.