TGF-beta(1) was significantly less secreted in mature milk of allergic mothers, while no difference in IL-10 was found. Particular cytokine patterns in milk could influence development of atopic diseases. Further immunological studies in this field are necessary.

Children living on farms have fewer allergies. It is unclear whether breastfeeding in different environments contributes to preventing allergies by exposing offspring to different cytokines that can modulate immune responses. The aim of this study was to quantify and compare levels of Transforming Growth Factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) and Interleukin-10 (IL-10) in the colostrum and mature milk of mothers living in towns at sea level (references) and mothers on farms. Milk samples were collected within 3 days postpartum (colostrum) and at the first month of the baby's life (mature milk). Sixty-nine reference mothers and 45 farm mothers participated in the study. TGF-beta1 concentrations were significantly higher both in the colostrum (p < 0.05) and in mature milk (p < 0.05) of farm mothers. In the reference mothers, a significant decrease in TGF-beta1 concentrations was observed between colostrum (650, range 0-8000 pg/ml) and mature milk (250, range 0-8000 pg/ml) (p < 0.05). In farm mothers, TGF-beta1 concentrations were 1102 pg/ml (range 0-14,500) in colostrum and remained high in mature milk (821 pg/ml, range 0-14,650). IL-10 concentrations were higher in the mature milk of farm mothers (p < 0.05). No significant differences in IL-10 were observed between colostrum and mature milk in the control group (15 pg/ml, range 0-1800, and 0 pg/ml, range 0-230) or in farm mothers (9.5 pg/ml, range 0-1775, and 14.2 pg/ml, range 0-930), respectively. Exposure to a farm environment is associated with higher concentrations of TGF-beta1 and IL-10 in breast milk when compared to exposure to an urban environment. Higher cytokine concentrations in breast milk may influence early modulation of the development of an immune response, leading to a reduced prevalence of allergy-related diseases in farm children.

Background Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a common condition in infancy which usually disappears by 3 years of age in a significant proportion of children. The prognosis is mostly determined by severity and presence of atopic sensitization. Objectives To investigate prevalence of AD, comorbidities and risk factors in a population of preschool children aged 3-5 years. Methods Children in kindergartens were evaluated. The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood written questionnaire (WQ) was used, with additional questions on risk factors. Atopy was investigated by skin prick tests. Results One thousand, four hundred and two valid WQs (92% response rate) were returned for evaluation. The prevalence of AD symptoms in the last 12 months in the whole population was 18AE1% (254 cases). Seventy-two per cent of these children presented AD-specific localizations. The prevalence of eczema as a doctor's diagnosis in the total population was 15AE4%. Positive atopic sensitization was present in 18AE6% of the total and in 32AE2% of the AD study population, respectively. Multiple sensitivities were observed in 58AE2% of sensitized children. The prevalence of sensitization demonstrated that the most common sensitizing allergens in children with AD were mites and grass pollen. Rhinitis symptoms and wheezing were present in 32AE2% and 24AE2%, respectively, of children with AD. Allergic sensitization to egg, cat, grass pollen and mites, as well as the presence of symptoms of rhinitis, and a positive family history of atopy were all significant risk factors for AD. Conclusions The study demonstrates a high prevalence of AD and a close relationship with rhinitis symptoms. Significant risk factors for AD were sensitization to food or inhalant allergens as well as parental history of atopy.

Healthy children have higher nNO levels than PCD patients. In 15% of uncooperative healthy children can be found low nNO levels, similar to PCD patients, but those values increased some months later, in successive evaluations. Nasal NO may be used for PCD screening even though repeated evaluations may be necessary in young children.