This paper provides an update of a previous review 'Red Meat in the Diet' published in the Nutrition Bulletin in 2005. An update on red meat consumption levels in the UK and other countries is provided, and a summary of the nutritional content of red meat in the diet is given. Current evidence on dietary and lifestyle factors associated with red meat consumption and the effects of red meat intake on health and chronic disease outcomes are discussed. As there is now continued debate about the environmental impact of different aspects of our diet, sustainability issues regarding red meat were also discussed.

Summary Fish plays a useful role in a healthy and balanced diet, and its consumption has long been associated with several health benefits. Fish provides a variety of nutrients, including protein and long‐chain omega‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n‐3 PUFAs), as well as micronutrients including selenium, iodine, potassium, vitamin D and B‐vitamins. Intakes of some of these micronutrients, including iodine and vitamin D, are low in some population groups in the UK, which makes fish a valuable contributor to intakes of these. The long‐chain n‐3 PUFA eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), present in oil‐rich fish and fish oil, have been suggested to be associated with beneficial health outcomes. In this paper, we review the evidence associating fish and long‐chain n‐3 PUFAs with various health outcomes. Evidence from observational studies shows a protective effect of fish intake on risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD; including stroke). Eating at least two portions of fish per week has been associated with a 23–25% lower risk of death from coronary heart disease (CHD) compared with those eating no or very little fish; eating fish once a week has been associated with a 15% lower risk of CHD death. Fish intake seems only moderately associated with lower risk of stroke, with results from meta‐analyses showing a risk reduction of between 6% and 18% in those eating fish 2–4 times per week compared with those eating none. There have been some inconsistencies in study findings relating to fish intake and risk of CVD. Differences in habitual fish intakes of the study populations may account for some of this inconsistency. Evidence from randomised controlled trials (RCTs) on the effect of long‐chain n‐3 PUFA supplementation on CVD risk has come mainly from secondary prevention studies and is inconsistent. While early studies support a protective effect, recent studies do not support the hypothesis that long‐chain n‐3 PUFA supplementation is beneficial in secondary prevention of CVD. Different study outcomes have been influenced by variations in study design and the characteristics of the study populations. Furthermore, the increased use of modern treatments for cardiovascular risk factors (e.g. statins) may not have been sufficiently controlled for in more recent studies. Treatment doses of long‐chain n‐3 PUFA also varied substantially between studies, ranging from 0.3 to 6.9 g/day. Current evidence suggests that there is no association between fish consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes. We also found no evidence to suggest that fish intake has a protective effect on several types of cancer (pancreas, prostate, bladder, stomach and ovaries). However, studies do suggest that maternal fish intake during pregnancy may reduce the risk of eczema and asthma in her baby, the evidence being somewhat more consistent for eczema. There may also be a link between fish intake during infancy and childhood and the risk of developing asthma and eczema later in childhood, although the evidence is inconsistent and more ...

Probiotics are live microorganisms -mainly bacteria -which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the host. There is rising interest in this area, but reports in the media are often conflicting. The aim of this review is to consider the current evidence on the effects of probiotics on health, focusing on gut-related health issues and the immune system, with the objective to provide a clearer picture of whether and how probiotics can be beneficial for health. The outcomes of this review are based on more than 100 original studies, meta-analyses and systematic reviews. A variety of different strains have been used in studies on probiotics, and it is important to remember that the effectiveness of probiotics is strain-specific, which means that each single probiotic strain has to be tested to assess its potential health benefits.Overall, despite the diversity of strains used in the studies included in this review, there is evidence that probiotics have the potential to be beneficial for our health. Studies in patients with inflammatory bowel disease show probiotic strains to be able to decrease the recurrence of ulcerative colitis and occurrence and recurrence of pouchitis, however, current evidence suggests that probiotics are ineffective in treating patients with Crohn's disease. Patients with irritable bowel syndrome show a reduction in symptoms when treated with selected probiotic strains, but high placebo effects have been reported as well. The evidence of the efficacy of probiotics in patients suffering from constipation is limited, but the evidence seems promising for some strains to bring relief to patients suffering from constipation.There is good evidence that a number of probiotic strains are effective in preventing antibiotic-associated diarrhoea. The most commonly studied strains are Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) and Saccharomyces boulardii, but other strains and mixtures of strains seem to be effective as well. There is also promising evidence of a preventive effect of probiotics in Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea, although some studies have been too small to obtain statistically significant findings. The effect of probiotics in acute diarrhoea, particularly in children, is well studied. Selected probiotic strains seem to be effective in reducing the duration of acute diarrhoea. LGG and S. boulardii are again the most commonly used strains and a number of studies have shown them to be effective, although one metaanalysis showed that the effect of LGG was only significant in children in Western countries, not in children in developing countries, which may be due to different causes of diarrhoea in these regions. Studies investigating the preventive effect of probiotics in the context of common cold and flu infections show that the studied strains failed to lower the incidence of episodes but that they have the potential to decrease the duration of episodes, which suggests that the immune system may be 340 more efficient in fighting off common cold and flu infectio...

Summary This paper updates a British Nutrition Foundation (BNF) Briefing Paper on this topic, published in 2011. Healthy eating and being physically active are particularly important for children and adolescents. This is because their nutrition and lifestyle influence their wellbeing, growth and development. There remains considerable room for improvement in the diets of British schoolchildren, according to findings of the government's National Diet and Nutrition Surveys (NDNS), but some improvements have been made in the past decade. Although intakes of saturated fatty acids and non‐milk extrinsic sugars have decreased in recent years, on average, they are still above recommended upper levels. Average contribution of fat to total energy intake has dropped below the recommended upper level of 35%, but fibre intakes remain low. With regard to micronutrients, many teenage girls are consuming low amounts of iron, but there is also evidence of low intakes of vitamin A, riboflavin, calcium, magnesium, potassium, selenium, iodine and zinc. New data on micronutrient status is now available for 11–18 year‐olds, and reveals low levels of vitamin D, riboflavin and iron (mainly in girls). Low vitamin D intake and status is a particular problem in some ethnic minority groups, especially South Asian children. There is also some evidence of socio‐economic inequalities; for example, children from families with higher incomes tend to have higher intakes of fruits and vegetables compared with children from families with lower incomes. This paper also discusses how dietary patterns can influence the micronutrient intake and status of schoolchildren, as well as the risk of overweight and obesity. Since publication of the Briefing Paper in 2011, new physical activity guidelines have been published and, for the first time, these are UK‐wide guidelines. Also for the first time, UK‐wide data on physical activity levels in schoolchildren are available (for 7‐year‐old children). Physical activity levels vary little between the UK regions, with the exception of Northern Ireland where fewer children meet the UK recommendations than in other regions. The data highlight significant differences between boys and girls (with girls generally being less active) and significant differences between ethnic groups. In particular, children from the Bangladeshi, Indian and Pakistani ethnic groups are less likely to meet the recommended levels of physical activity compared with other children. Obesity remains a major problem among British schoolchildren and there is a stark socio‐economic gradient, with levels of obesity being highest in the most socially deprived children. This paper also discusses various health issues in children, including iron deficiency anaemia, oral health, bone development, food allergy and intolerance, and cognitive function in children, updating the previous paper with the latest statistics and evidence. The findings of the NDNS serve to emphasise the importance of a whole school approach to good nutrition embracing the school...

SUMMARY 1 NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF CHILDREN 1.1 Dietary reference values 1.2 Fluid requirements 1.3 Growth and development 2 THE NATIONAL DIET AND NUTRITION SURVEY OF YOUNG PEOPLE 2.1 Types of food eaten 2.2 Energy intake 2.3 Macronutrient intakes 2.4 Micronutrient intakes and status 2.5 Dietary supplements 2.6 Vegetarians/vegans 2.7 Regional and socio‐economic differences 3 PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PATTERNS IN CHILDREN 3.1 Physical activity patterns in the UK 3.2 Health benefits and effecting change 4 HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF CHILDREN's DIETS AND ACTIVITY PATTERNS 4.1 Prevalence and implications of childhood obesity 4.2 Risk factors for cardiovascular health 4.3 Bone development 4.4 Cancer 4.5 Iron deficiency anaemia 4.6 Oral health 4.7 Food allergies and intolerance 4.8 Eating disorders and restrained eating 5 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES 5.1 Impact of television advertising 5.2 Other social influences 5.3 Teenage pregnancy 5.4 Smoking, alcohol and drug use 6 TEACHING ABOUT NUTRITION AND HEALTH IN SCHOOLS 6.1 The formal curriculum 6.2 The ‘hidden’ curriculum 7 IMPROVING THE HEALTH AND NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF CHILDREN 7.1 UK initiatives in schools 7.2 School lunches 7.3 School initiatives in North America and elsewhere 7.4 Non‐school initiatives 7.5 Welfare programmes for mothers and young children 8 CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES LIST OF BRIEFING PAPERS Summary  Over the last 50 years, there has been a change in the predominant concerns about the diets and health of school aged children. Historically, the focus has been on the provision of sufficient nutrients and energy in relation to current and future needs, but providing dietary balance and encouraging less sedentary lifestyles are now viewed as the main priorities. The government report, the National Diet and Nutrition Survey: Young People aged 4–18 years, which was published in 2000, provides comprehensive information on the dietary patterns, nutrient intakes, nutritional status and physical activity patterns of young people in Britain today. This survey, in common with a number of other recent reports and papers, has identified the public health implications of the diet and lifestyle of schoolchildren of all ages. With the exception of very young children (4–6 years old), between 40–69% of children in Britain are largely inactive, spending less than one hour a day participating in activities of moderate intensity. These findings are also consistent with a number of other recent reports concerning the increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity in children. This situation mirrors that in adults and is likely to have the same fundamental causes. Consistent with data from the National Food Survey, it appears that over recent years there has been a reduction in energy intake and fat intake as a percentage of energy, with a corresponding increase in the proportion of energy derived from protein and carbohydrate. The average fat intake of children is in line with recommendations for adults, although their average intake of saturated fatty acids st...