Infections with rhinovirus (RV) cause asthma exacerbations. Recent studies suggest that macrophages play a role in asthmatic airway inflammation and the innate immune response to RV infection. Macrophages exhibit phenotypes based on surface markers and gene expression. We hypothesized that macrophage polarization state alters gene expression in response to RV infection. Cells were derived from human peripheral blood derived monocytes. M1 and M2 polarization was carried out by using IFN-γ and IL-4, respectively, and RNA was extracted for Affymetrix Human Gene ST2.1 exon arrays. Selected genes were validated by quantitative (q)PCR. Treatment of nonactivated (M0) macrophages with IFN-γ and IL-4 induced the expression of 252 and 153 distinct genes, respectively, including previously-identified M1 and M2 markers. RV infection of M0 macrophages induced upregulation of 232 genes; pathway analysis showed significant overrepresentation of genes involved in IFN-α/β signaling and cytokine signaling in the immune system. RV infection induced differential expression of 195 distinct genes in M1-like macrophages but only seven distinct genes in M2-like-polarized cells. In a secondary analysis, comparison between M0-, RV-infected, and M1-like-polarized, RV-infected macrophages revealed differential expression of 227 genes including those associated with asthma and its exacerbation. qPCR demonstrated increased expression of CCL8, CXCL10, TNFSF10, TNFSF18, IL6, NOD2, and GSDMD and reduced expression of VNN1, AGO1, and AGO2. Together, these data show that, in contrast to M2-like-polarized macrophages, gene expression of M1-like macrophages is highly regulated by RV.

BackgroundFew longitudinal studies examine inflammation and lung function in asthma. We sought to determine the cytokines that reduce airflow, and the influence of respiratory viral infections on these relationships.MethodsChildren underwent home collections of nasal lavage during scheduled surveillance periods and self-reported respiratory illnesses. We studied 53 children for one year, analyzing 392 surveillance samples and 203 samples from 85 respiratory illnesses. Generalized estimated equations were used to evaluate associations between nasal lavage biomarkers (7 mRNAs, 10 proteins), lung function and viral infection.ResultsAs anticipated, viral infection was associated with increased cytokines and reduced FVC and FEV1. However, we found frequent and strong interactions between biomarkers and virus on lung function. For example, in the absence of viral infection, CXCL10 mRNA, MDA5 mRNA, CXCL10, IL-4, IL-13, CCL4, CCL5, CCL20 and CCL24 were negatively associated with FVC. In contrast, during infection, the opposite relationship was frequently found, with IL-4, IL-13, CCL5, CCL20 and CCL24 levels associated with less severe reductions in both FVC and FEV1.ConclusionsIn asthmatic children, airflow obstruction is driven by specific pro-inflammatory cytokines. In the absence of viral infection, higher cytokine levels are associated with decreasing lung function. However, with infection, there is a reversal in this relationship, with cytokine abundance associated with reduced lung function decline. While nasal samples may not reflect lower airway responses, these data suggest that some aspects of the inflammatory response may be protective against viral infection. This study may have ramifications for the treatment of viral-induced asthma exacerbations.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1186/s12931-018-0922-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Background: Upper respiratory tract viral infections cause asthma exacerbations in children. However, the impact of natural colds on asthmatic children in the community, particularly in the high-risk urban environment, is less well-defined. Objective:We hypothesized that children with high-symptom upper respiratory viral infections have reduced airway function and greater respiratory tract inflammation than children with viruspositive low-symptom illnesses or virus-negative upper respiratory tract symptoms. Methods:We studied 53 asthmatic children from Detroit, Michigan during scheduled surveillance periods and self-reported respiratory illnesses for one year. Symptom score, spirometry, fraction of exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) and nasal aspirate biomarkers, viral nucleic acid and rhinovirus (RV) copy number were assessed. Results:Of 658 aspirates collected, 22.9% of surveillance samples and 33.7% of respiratory illnesses were virus-positive. Compared to the virus-negative asymptomatic condition, children with severe colds (symptom score ≥5) showed reduced forced expiratory flow at 25-75% of the pulmonary volume (FEF25-75), higher nasal mRNA expression of C-X-C motif chemokine ligand (CXCL)-10 and melanoma differentiation-associated protein 5, and higher protein abundance of CXCL8, CXCL10 and C-C motif chemokine ligands (CCL)-2, CCL4, CCL20 and CCL24. Children with mild (symptom score 1-4) and asymptomatic infections showed normal airway function and fewer biomarker elevations. Virus-negative cold-like illnesses demonstrated increased FeNO, minimal biomarker elevation and normal airflow. RV copy number was associated with nasal chemokine levels but not symptom score. Conclusion:Urban asthmatic children with high-symptom respiratory viral infections have reduced FEF25-75 and more elevations of nasal biomarkers than children with mild or asymptomatic infections, or virus-negative illnesses.