Amphibians are most notably characterized by their glandular skin, which they shed regularly and ingest routinely. It is advisable to handle amphibians only with protective gloves to avoid damaging their skin. These animals absorb water readily across the skin as a means of maintaining hydration. They also easily absorb drugs and anesthetics that are applied directly to the skin. Investigators commonly utilize cutaneous respiration in amphibians and evaluate skin abnormalities via wet mount preparations, skin scrapes, and biopsy. The examination of blood samples can be useful in evaluating the status of ill amphibians, although the similarity in function of amphibian blood cell types and those of other species is largely unknown. If surgery is required, it is necessary to fast the animals before surgery, and to monitor their hydration. The wet environment required for amphibian surgery makes sterile technique challenging, and it is advisable to institute prophylactic antibiotic therapy before the procedure. The anesthetic of choice for amphibian surgery is tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222). Postoperative recommendations include fluids, nutritional support if necessary, and analgesia. If euthanasia is required, MS-222 overdose or pentobarbital injection are the preferred methods.

Abstract. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium sp. and Giardia sp. in fecal samples collected from freeranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) was determined for animals in Virginia and Mississippi. The 34 Virginia samples came from young of the year (Յ6 months of age) presented to the Wildlife Center of Virginia, and the 360 Mississippi samples came from animals (Ն6 months of age) collected from 42 different sites across the state. Cryptosporidial oocysts were detected in 8.8% and 5.0% and Giardia sp. cysts were detected in 2.9% and 1.1% of the samples from Virginia and Mississippi, respectively. Analysis of data by collection site was not possible because of the small number of samples from some sites. Therefore, collection sites in Mississippi were grouped by the stream basin in which they occurred. Binary logistic regression analysis indicated the probability of infection with Cryptosporidium sp. decreased with increasing age of animal in all positive stream basins except 1, in which the pattern was reversed. This is the first report of either Cryptosporidium sp. or Giardia sp. in free-ranging white-tailed deer. The role of white-tailed deer in the epidemiology of these parasites is unknown. However, this study demonstrates that white-tailed deer shed cysts and oocysts of both parasites in the environment and must be considered potential sources of contamination.

Attempts have been made to define the relationships among the South American camelids, the guanaco, llama, alpaca, and vicuna, by comparing the morphology of their incisors. The alpaca has been reported to have an incisor morphology similar to the vicuna, lacking enamel on the lingual surface. The llama and guanaco are said to have enamel on both the labial and lingual surface of their incisor teeth. These comparisons have been based on gross morphological observations and not on histologic analysis. This study was undertaken to determine whether or not alpaca teeth have enamel on the lingual surface. The cross-sectional histologic anatomy of the incisor teeth was compared in two closely related South American camelid species, the llama (Lama glama), and the alpaca (Lama pacos). Thick sections (300 microm) and scanning electron microscopy were the techniques utilized. The mandibular first, second, and third incisors were examined in four llamas and five alpacas. A substantial layer of enamel was present on all surfaces of all llama incisors. The enamel layer on the labial surface of the alpaca incisors closely resembled that found in the llama. The enamel layer on the lingual surface of the alpaca incisors, although greatly reduced, was distinctly present. Alpacas may be more closely related to guanacos and llamas than to vicunas. A histologic study of vicuna incisors would help to better define the relationships of the four camelids.

No abstract

North American zoos in 1984 had the first opportunity in many years to obtain South American camelids after a long embargo on imports. The Rio Grande Zoo in Albuquerque, New Mexico, purchased two alpacas and one presumptive llama during this period. The llama, however, appeared to be phenotypically intermediate between a llama and an alpaca. In an attempt to ascertain the identity of this animal, it and purebred individuals of llama and alpaca were compared at 22 presumptive genic loci using starch-gel electrophoresis. Genic differences between llama and alpaca suggest this animal to be a hybrid. If further tests prove consistent with the findings of this study, this technique will provide a simple assay using easily obtained blood for identifying llama and alpaca. The use of genetic management techniques such as this in zoos holds great potential for helping to preserve pure breeding lines of closely related interfertile animals.