The heterogeneity of the rock fabric is a significant factor influencing the initiation and propagation of a hydraulic fracture (HF). This paper presents a laboratory study of HF created in six shale-like core samples provided by RITEK LLC collected from the same well, but at different depths. For each tested sample, we determined the breakdown pressure, the HF growth rate, and the expansion of the sample at the moment when the HF reaches the sample surface. Correlations were established between the HF parameters and the geomechanical characteristics of the studied samples, and deviations from the general relationships were explained by the influence of the rock matrix. The analysis of the moment tensor inversion of radiated acoustic emission (AE) signals allows us to separate AE signals with a dominant shear component from the signals with a significant tensile component. The direction of microcrack opening was determined, which is in good agreement with the results of the post-test X-ray CT analysis of the created HF. Thus, it has been shown that a combination of several independent laboratory techniques allows one to reliably determine the parameters that can be used for verification of hydraulic fracturing models.

In the last decade, the negative impact of hydraulic fracturing fluids on the reservoir properties has been noted, which has led to the new trend of improving characteristics and developing new hydraulic fracturing fluids. As an alternative option to the traditionally used cross-linked fluids based on guar solution, in our laboratory we have tested fluids having a branched spatial structure, which allowed them to hold and transport proppants, despite the low viscosity of this kind of fluids (100–200 mPa·s measured at 100 s−1). Existing theoretical models of hydraulic fracture (HF) propagation have some limitations in predicting the influence of fracturing fluids on reservoir properties. Unfortunately, in situ experiments in the target reservoir are difficult and expensive. Thus, laboratory experiments can be considered as a reasonable alternative for testing new fluids, since they can provide comprehensive information about the properties of the created HF before the application of a new hydraulic fracturing technique in the field conditions. This paper presents the results of an experimental study of hydraulic fracturing of granite samples in laboratory conditions. The injection of water- and oil-based unconventional fracturing fluids was performed to study the influence of fluid rheology on the dynamics of the hydraulic fracture propagation process and parameters of the created HF. We have found that the fracturing fluid viscosity affects the parameters of the created HF, such as aperture, propagation velocity, breakdown pressure, and HF surface tortuosity. The obtained relationships can be taken into account for Hydraulic Fracture modelling, which may increase the efficiency of the hydraulic fracturing in the field conditions.

In this study, a set of laboratory experiments was carried out to study the parameters of hydraulic fractures induced in the dry and mineral-oil-saturated rocks and compare them with the geomechanical characteristics of tested samples. We chose sandstone and thermally treated granite as the materials for research. There are very few known studies related to the mechanical and acoustic properties of oil-saturated rocks, and even fewer studies describing, in detail, the parameters of hydraulic fractures generated in oil-saturated rocks. The hydraulic fracture parameters were determined using a set of independent sensors installed to measure the axial deformation of the sample (which is directly related to the aperture of created hydraulic fracture), fluid pressure, fluid volume injected into hydraulic fracture, and localization of acoustic emission (AE) events, generated during the propagation of hydraulic fractures. Our study focuses on the investigation of the influence of rock properties, altered by mineral oil saturation and thermal treatment, on such parameters of hydraulic fracturing as breakdown pressure (BP), fracture aperture, and the resulting roughness of the hydraulic fracture surface. In addition, we studied the influence of injected fluid viscosity on the parameters of created hydraulic fractures. It was revealed that the saturation state caused a reduction in the values of mechanical parameters such as Young’s modulus, compressive strength, and cohesion, and had a similar reducing influence on the breakdown pressure. The values of HF parameters, such as fracture width and the volume of fracturing agent injected into the HF, are higher in the tests for both saturated sandstone and saturated TT granite. However, we found out that thermal treatment of granite samples led to a much more significant reduction in the values of mechanical and acoustic parameters than the mineral-oil saturation procedure because it created a dense network of thermally induced cracks. The results obtained in our laboratory studies can be taken into account in the modeling of hydraulic fracturing in the field.

<p>Understanding the processes of Hydraulic Fracturing (HF) initiation and propagation in different types of rocks is important for the design and optimization of HF during the exploitation of underground resources. The main goals were to study the dynamics of the process of hydraulic fracture growth and possible optimization of HF technology for both homogeneous and heterogeneous rocks. Laboratory experiments on HF with different injection parameters were carried out on natural limestone, dolomite and shale specimens. The dynamics of HF process was monitored by Acoustic Emission (AE) technique, on the analogy of induced microseismicity monitoring of HF in the field conditions. The shape of created HF and the size of leak-off zone were analyzed by X-Ray CT scanning technique after the testing.</p><p>Experiments on dolomite were conducted using fluids with different viscosities (1000-10000 cP) injected into the rock with a rate of 0.5 ml/min. In case of low viscosity, we observed low AE activity. After the test, the sample was cut in several pieces transverse to the expected fracture plane. We have found that HF has initiated, but did not reach the sample boundaries and leak-off was significant. The ten times increase of fluid viscosity resulted in significantly increased AE activity, smaller size of leak-off zone and higher breakdown pressure (21.8 against 18.7 MPa). The post-test 3D shape of HF surface obtained by X-Ray CT closely correlates with 3D shape of localized AE events, confirming that the fracture propagated in the direction of maximal stress, as expected. It means that viscosity of fracturing fluid had a significant effect on fracturing breakdown pressure and fracture behavior.</p><p>The influence of different rock types on hydraulic fracturing was studied with dolomite, limestone and shale samples. In case of dolomite and shale, sufficient number of Acoustic Emission events were recorded, which allowed tracing the direction and dynamics of fracture propagation. However, for the limestone, a very small number of AE events were localized with the same parameters of injected fluid. Comparison of dolomite and shale HFs shows that the crack in the shale had a more complex shape, deviating from the maximal stress direction, which was explained by rock heterogeneity, by the presence of natural cracks and inclined planes of weakness. It led us to conclusion that the rock fabric plays an important role in the behavior of hydraulic fracture in heterogeneous rock.</p>

<p>Nowadays Hydraulic Fracturing (HF) is one of the most effective stimulation technique for hydrocarbon extraction from unconventional reservoirs, as well as enhanced geothermal applications. Practical applications of HF can have different aims. In one case, we need to stop cracks inside the host rock to avoid some HF breakthroughs into other formations and possible groundwater pollutions. The second situation is when we need to fracture several bedding planes in a reservoir which has a complex structure, especially in case of the presence of multiple natural fractures in unconventional reservoir. It is important to study hydraulic fracturing, its propagation and conditions of interaction with interfaces in laboratory conditions before expensive field application.</p><p>The present work demonstrates the results of a laboratory study designed to understand fracture interaction with artificial interfaces. For the first series of experiments, we used some natural materials such as shales, sandstones, dolomites and limestones with different porosity, permeability and mechanical properties. During these experiments we initiated hydraulic fracturing in homogeneous specimens with and without artificial surfaces, modelling natural fractures or bedding planes in unconventional reservoirs. For the second series of experiments, we used a combination of different materials to understand HF propagation in heterogeneous media, to study conditions of HF crossing or arrest at the boundaries between different types of rock. These laboratory experiments were done to create HF simulating natural processes in fractured and heterogeneous rocks or reservoirs.</p><p>Series of hydraulic fracturing experiments under uniaxial load conditions were conducted using the multifunctional system MTS 815.04. Before testing, samples were scanned by 3D CT System to characterize the rock fabric, and after testing, CT scanning was repeated to characterize 3D shape of created HF. The dynamics of HF initiation and propagation was monitored by Acoustic Emission (AE) technique, using piezoelectric sensors glued to the surface of the rock to record elastic waves radiated during the process of HF propagation. The experiments were made with different injection rates and fluid viscosities. Changes in radial strain, injection pressure and microseismic data over time were recorded.</p><p>As the result, these experiments indicate significant factors (rock heterogeneity, porosity, permeability, fluid viscosity and injection rate), influencing cracks initiation, propagation or arrest on the artificial interface. The fracture propagation and opening are characterized by measured radial deformation, fluid pressure and geometrical orientation in the sample volume. The experiments demonstrated, that fracture easily crossed artificial surface in the homogeneous limestone samples. And cracks initiated in limestone were arrested on the border with shale. In all cases combination of the AE and deformation monitoring allows to indicate fracture initiation, propagation and arrest.</p>