MRP8 (ABCC11) is a recently identified cDNA that has been assigned to the multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP) family of ATP-binding cassette transporters, but its functional characteristics have not been determined. Here we examine the functional properties of the protein using transfected LLC-PK1 cells. It is shown that ectopic expression of MRP8 reduces basal intracellular levels of cAMP and cGMP and enhances cellular extrusion of cyclic nucleotides in the presence or absence of stimulation with forskolin or SIN-1A. Analysis of the sensitivity of MRP8-overexpressing cells revealed that they are resistant to a range of clinically relevant nucleotide analogs, including the anticancer fluoropyrimidines 5-fluorouracil (ϳ3-fold), 5-fluoro-2-deoxyuridine (ϳ5-fold), and 5-fluoro-5-deoxyuridine (ϳ3-fold), the anti-human immunodeficiency virus agent 2,3-dideoxycytidine (ϳ6-fold) and the anti-hepatitis B agent 9-(2-phosphonylmethoxynyl)adenine (PMEA) (ϳ5-fold). By contrast, increased resistance was not observed for several natural product chemotherapeutic agents. In accord with the notion that MRP8 functions as a drug efflux pump for nucleotide analogs, MRP8-transfected cells exhibited reduced accumulation and increased efflux of radiolabeled PMEA. In addition, it is shown by the use of in vitro transport assays that MRP8 is able to confer resistance to fluoropyrimidines by mediating the MgATP-dependent transport of 5-fluoro-2-deoxyuridine monophosphate, the cytotoxic intracellular metabolite of this class of agents, but not of 5-fluorouracil or 5-fluoro-2-deoxyuridine. We conclude that MRP8 is an amphipathic anion transporter that is able to efflux cAMP and cGMP and to function as a resistance factor for commonly employed purine and pyrimidine nucleotide analogs.Cellular extrusion of cyclic nucleotides has been described in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (1-4). This process provides extracellular cAMP involved in intercellular signaling, as determined for Dictyostelium discoideum, in which cAMP effluxed by solitary amoebae under low nutrient conditions mediates cellular aggregation and differentiation, and has also been proposed as a potential mechanism that may contribute to the attenuation of intracellular signaling mediated by these second messengers (5). Investigations employing cultured cells and membrane vesicle preparations have established that cyclic nucleotide efflux is energy-dependent, and the susceptibility of this process to inhibition by antagonists of organic anion pumps indicates that it is mediated by amphipathic anion transporters (2, 3, 6 -16). Recently, insights into the identities of the cellular components that mediate cyclic nucleotide efflux have come from studies of the MRP 1 family of ABC transporters. MRP4 and MRP5, two members of this extended family of amphipathic anion transporters (17), have been determined to be competent in the transport of cyclic nucleotides (18 -20). By contrast, other characterized MRP family members are able to transport a variety of lipophilic anions, ...

Human multidrug resistance protein 7 (MRP7, ABCC10) is a recently described member of the C family of ATP binding cassette proteins (Cancer Lett 162:181-191, 2001). However, neither its biochemical activity nor physiological functions have been determined. Here we report the results of investigations of the in vitro transport properties of MRP7 using membrane vesicles prepared from human embryonic kidney 293 cells transfected with MRP7 expression vector. It is shown that expression of MRP7 is specifically associated with the MgATPdependent transport of 17␤-estradiol-(17-␤-D-glucuronide) (E 2 17␤G). E 2 17␤G transport was saturable, with K m and V max values of 57.8 Ϯ 15 M and 53.1 Ϯ 20 pmol/mg/min. By contrast, with E 2 17␤G, only modest enhancement of LTC 4 transport was observed and transport of several other established substrates of MRP family transporters was not detectable to any extent. In accord with the notion that MRP7 has a bipartite substrate binding pocket composed of sites for anionic and lipophilic moieties, transport of E 2 17␤G was susceptible to competitive inhibition by both amphiphiles, such as leukotriene C 4 (K i(app) , 1.5 M), glycolithocholate 3-sulfate (K i(app) , 34.2 M) and MK571 (K i(app) , 28.5 M), and lipophilic agents such as cyclosporine A (K i(app) , 14.4 M). Of the inhibitors tested, LTC 4 was the most potent, in agreement with the possibility that it is a substrate of the pump. The determination that MRP7 has the facility for mediating the transport of conjugates such as E 2 17␤G indicates that it is a lipophilic anion transporter involved in phase III (cellular extrusion) of detoxification.

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1), a nuclear protein, utilizes NAD to synthesize poly(AD-Pribose) (pADPr), resulting in both automodification and the modification of acceptor proteins. Substantial amounts of PARP1 and pADPr (up to 50%) are localized to the nucleolus, a subnuclear organelle known as a region for ribosome biogenesis and maturation. At present, the functional significance of PARP1 protein inside the nucleolus remains unclear. Using PARP1 mutants, we investigated the function of PARP1, pADPr, and PARP1-interacting proteins in the maintenance of nucleolus structure and functions. Our analysis shows that disruption of PARP1 enzymatic activity caused nucleolar disintegration and aberrant localization of nucleolar-specific proteins. Additionally, PARP1 mutants have increased accumulation of rRNA intermediates and a decrease in ribosome levels. Together, our data suggests that PARP1 enzymatic activity is required for targeting nucleolar proteins to the proximity of precursor rRNA; hence, PARP1 controls precursor rRNA processing, post-transcriptional modification, and pre-ribosome assembly. Based on these findings, we propose a model that explains how PARP1 activity impacts nucleolar functions and, consequently, ribosomal biogenesis.

Recently, the nuclear protein known as Poly (ADP-ribose) Polymerase1 (PARP1) was shown to play a key role in regulating transcription of a number of genes and controlling the nuclear sub-organelle nucleolus. PARP1 enzyme is known to catalyze the transfer of ADP-ribose to a variety of nuclear proteins. At present, however, while we do know that the main acceptor for pADPr in vivo is PARP1 protein itself, by PARP1 automodification, the significance of PARP1 automodification for in vivo processes is not clear. Therefore, we investigated the roles of PARP1 auto ADP-ribosylation in dynamic nuclear processes during development. Specifically, we discovered that PARP1 automodification is required for shuttling key proteins into Cajal body (CB) by protein non-covalent interaction with pADPr in vivo. We hypothesize that PARP1 protein shuttling follows a chain of events whereby, first, most unmodified PARP1 protein molecules bind to chromatin and accumulate in nucleoli, but then, second, upon automodification with poly(ADP-ribose), PARP1 interacts non-covalently with a number of nuclear proteins such that the resulting protein-pADPr complex dissociates from chromatin into CB.

According to the histone code hypothesis, histone variants and modified histones provide binding sites for proteins that change the chromatin state to either active or repressed. Here, we identify histone variants that regulate the targeting and enzymatic activity of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1), a chromatin regulator in higher eukaryotes. We demonstrate that PARP1 is targeted to chromatin by association with the histone H2A variant (H2Av)-the Drosophila homolog of the mammalian histone H2A variants H2Az/H2Ax-and that subsequent phosphorylation of H2Av leads to PARP1 activation. This two-step mechanism of PARP1 activation controls transcription at specific loci in a signal-dependent manner. Our study establishes the mechanism through which histone variants and changes in the histone modification code control chromatin-directed PARP1 activity and the transcriptional activation of target genes.poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation | poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase | nucleosome | Hsp70