1The Last Interglacial (MIS 5e, is among the most studied past periods in Earth's history. The 2 climate at that time was warmer than today, primarily due to different orbital conditions, with smaller 3 ice sheets and higher sea-level. Field evidence for MIS 5e sea-level was reported from thousands of sites, 4 but often paleo shorelines were measured with low-accuracy techniques and, in some cases, there are 5 contrasting interpretations about paleo sea-level reconstructions. For this reason, large uncertainties still 6 surround both the maximum sea-level attained as well as the pattern of sea-level change throughout 7 MIS 5e. Such uncertainties are exacerbated by the lack of a uniform approach to measuring and 8interpreting the geological evidence of paleo sea-levels. In this review, we discuss the characteristicsof 9 MIS 5e field observations, and we set the basis for a standardized approach to MIS 5e paleo sea-level 10 reconstructions, that is already successfully applied in Holocene sea-level research. Application of the 11 standard definitions and methodologies described in this paper will enhance our ability to compare data 12 from different research groups and different areas, in order to gain deeper insights into MIS 5e sea-level 13 changes. Improving estimates of Last Interglacial sea-level is, in turn, a key to understand the behavior of 14 ice sheets in a warmer world. 15 12 Bruneau, N., Fortunato, A.B., Dodet, G., Freire, P., Oliveira, A., Bertin, X., 2011. Future evolution of a tidal 13 inlet due to changes in wave climate, Sea-level and lagoon morphology (Óbidos lagoon, Portugal). ., 2010. The last 21 interglacial sea-level high stand on the southern Cape coastline of South Africa. Quat. Res. 73, 351-22 363. 23Casella, E., Rovere, A., Pedroncini, A., Mucerino, L., Casella, M., Cusati, A.L., Vacchi, M., Ferrari, M., 24Firpo, M., 2014. Study of wave runup using numerical models and low-altitude aerial 25 photogrammetry : A tool for coastal management.

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If coral reefs continue to degrade, waves on coastlines may substantially increase, leading to greater coastal erosion.

Flash floods induced by extreme rainfall events represent one of the most life-threatening phenomena in the Mediterranean. While their catastrophic ground effects are well documented by postevent surveys, the extreme rainfall events that generate them are still difficult to observe properly. Being able to collect observations of such events will help scientists to better understand and model these phenomena. The recent flash floods that hit the Liguria region (Italy) between the end of October and beginning of November 2011 give us the opportunity to use the measurements available from a large number of sensors, both ground based and spaceborne, to characterize these events. In this paper, the authors analyze the role of the key ingredients (e.g., unstable air masses, moist low-level jets, steep orography, and a slow-evolving synoptic pattern) for severe rainfall processes over complex orography. For the two Ligurian events, this role has been analyzed through the available observations (e.g., Meteosat Second Generation, Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, the Italian Radar Network mosaic, and the Italian rain gauge network observations). The authors then address the possible role of sea–atmosphere interactions and propose a characterization of these events in terms of their predictability.