No abstract

Due to the popularity of wild animal–visitor interactions (AVIs), there is a need for an ethical assessment of their impact on animal welfare, education, and conservation. The protocol presented in this study is designed to evaluate such interactions on an integrated level, using a transparent analysis of all the aspects involved, including all the stakeholders and the potential conflicts of values. The protocol consists of a six-step process encompassing dedicated data acquisition and a specific ethical assessment. When the protocol was applied to assess a “giraffe feeding” interaction, steps devoted to data acquisition found that animal welfare risks were low, and that visitors described giraffes with emotionally linked descriptors more often after the interaction. The net promoter score, which refers to how likely visitors would recommend to a friend to join the animal–visitor interaction, was 74%. The subsequent ethical assessment, which consisted of a comparison of the results of the previous steps with an ethical matrix highlighting the ideal situation for all stakeholders’ interests, allowed the overall identification of the ethical concerns entailed by the interaction. A final ethical checklist of the examined AVI had a “yes” in entries regarding animal welfare, emotional, and conservation mindedness outcomes and ethical assessment.

The royal python (Python regius) is commonly bred in captivity. To have a successful breeding season, accurate monitoring of the reproductive activity is necessary. The use of non-invasive monitoring methods in exotics is important in order to minimize stress. For this purpose ultrasound has been anecdotally used to monitor royal python reproductive activity. However, there is limited information regarding the reproductive cycle of this species. The aim of the present study is to monitor the female reproductive cycle of the royal python using ultrasonography and gonadal steroid metabolite measurements in the faeces. The reproductive activity of one hundred twenty-nine adult female P. regius was examined during two consecutive years. We performed brief scans on non-anaesthetized snakes using a portable ultrasound system and a 10–12 MHz linear array transducer (MyLab™ 30 Gold, Esaote). Ultrasound features, dimension and echogenicity of the reproductive structures were determined. During the second reproductive cycle, the hormonal profiles of 30 animals were also evaluated, with a monthly collection of faecal samples. These samples were classified according to reproductive stage, as identified by ultrasonographic examination, and the mean faecal progesterone and 17β-estradiol levels were calculated using the results from an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Progesterone levels increased during the reproductive cycle. Estradiol levels showed greater variability, although they appeared to increase before coupling when compared to the levels between coupling and egg laying. The present study suggests that it is possible to identify different phases in the female royal python reproductive cycle: anovulatory phase, transition, folliculogenesis and embryogenesis. Ultrasound is also useful for identifying follicular regression or slugs. Gonadal steroid metabolite measurements from the faeces could help integrate reproductive information. The use of ultrasonography in addition to the steroid metabolite measurement in the faeces gives an accurate picture of ovarian activity in captive adult female royal pythons.

No abstract

Intrinsic and environmental stressors, such as age and seasonality, may influence social behavior and endocrine levels in gregarious foragers, but little is known about how season and age affect both behavioral and physiological responses. We evaluated seasonal/age variation of aggression and vigilance, and seasonal/age variation of endocrine levels (fecal cortisol and testosterone metabolites), in a gregarious herbivore, the Apennine chamois Rupicapra pyrenaica ornata. We examined a period of decreasing resource abundance and maternal care from July to October, a key period for nursing, weaning, and early growth of offspring. Aggression rate, vigilance, and cortisol levels decreased throughout July-October, while aggression intensity showed the reverse. Aggression intensity peaked when chamois were on the most nutritious vegetation patches. Dominance increased with age, and prime-aged females (4-8 years old) showed higher cortisol and testosterone levels and were involved in aggressive interactions more often than subadult or older females. Our findings suggest that, in early summer, when nursing effort is the greatest, selection of nutritious food patches leads to frequent encounters between female chamois, enhancing aggression rate, vigilance, and endogenous stress response. The progressive decrease in food abundance throughout July-October triggers competition for scarce resources and increased intensity of aggression. Most likely, the energetic demands of lactation and offspring guarding were key determinants of behavioral and physiological stress of female chamois. Our results suggest a multi-factorial compromise between reproductive state and stress levels, in a group-living species. Significance statementThe cost of motherhood: in female chamois, aggression, vigilance, and stress peak during lactation, despite abundant food resources. In females, aggression and dominance increase with age. A multi-factorial compromise between reproductive stage and stress may be necessary in a group-living animal. We suggest that motherhood is a stressful event for female chamois.