BackgroundThe inbred mouse strain BTBR T+ tf/J (BTBR) exhibits behavioral deficits that mimic the core deficits of autism. Neuroanatomically, the BTBR strain is also characterized by a complete absence of the corpus callosum. The goal of this study was to identify novel molecular and cellular changes in the BTBR mouse, focusing on neuronal, synaptic, glial and plasticity markers in the limbic system as a model for identifying putative molecular and cellular substrates associated with autistic behaviors.MethodsForebrains of 8 to 10-week-old male BTBR and age-matched C57Bl/6J control mice were evaluated by immunohistochemistry using free-floating and paraffin embedded sections. Twenty antibodies directed against antigens specific to neurons, synapses and glia were used. Nissl, Timm and acetylcholinesterase (AchE) stains were performed to assess cytoarchitecture, mossy fibers and cholinergic fiber density, respectively. In the hippocampus, quantitative stereological estimates for the mitotic marker bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) were performed to determine hippocampal progenitor proliferation, survival and differentiation, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA was quantified by in situ hybridization. Quantitative image analysis was performed for NG2, doublecortin (DCX), NeuroD, GAD67 and Poly-Sialic Acid Neural Cell Adhesion Molecule (PSA-NCAM).ResultsIn midline structures including the region of the absent corpus callosum of BTBR mice, the myelin markers 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide 3'-phosphodiesterase (CNPase) and myelin basic protein (MBP) were reduced, and the oligodendrocyte precursor NG2 was increased. MBP and CNPase were expressed in small ectopic white matter bundles within the cingulate cortex. Microglia and astrocytes showed no evidence of gliosis, yet orientations of glial fibers were altered in specific white-matter areas. In the hippocampus, evidence of reduced neurogenesis included significant reductions in the number of doublecortin, PSA-NCAM and NeuroD immunoreactive cells in the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus, and a marked reduction in the number of 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU) positive progenitors. Furthermore, a significant and profound reduction in BDNF mRNA was seen in the BTBR dentate gyrus. No significant differences were seen in the expression of AchE, mossy fiber synapses or immunoreactivities of microtubule-associated protein MAP2, parvalbumin and glutamate decarboxylase GAD65 or GAD67 isoforms.ConclusionsWe documented modest and selective alterations in glia, neurons and synapses in BTBR forebrain, along with reduced neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus. Of all markers examined, the most distinctive changes were seen in the neurodevelopmental proteins NG2, PSA-NCAM, NeuroD and DCX. Our results are consistent with aberrant development of the nervous system in BTBR mice, and may reveal novel substrates to link callosal abnormalities and autistic behaviors. The changes that we observed in the BTBR mice suggest potential novel therapeutic strategies for intervention in autism spect...

Considerable evidence indicates that the general blockade of protein synthesis prevents both the initial consolidation and the postretrieval reconsolidation of long-term memories. These findings come largely from studies of drugs that block ribosomal function, so as to globally interfere with both cap-dependent and -independent forms of translation. Here we show that intraamygdala microinfusions of 4EGI-1, a small molecule inhibitor of cap-dependent translation that selectively disrupts the interaction between eukaryotic initiation factors (eIF) 4E and 4G, attenuates fear memory consolidation but not reconsolidation. Using a combination of behavioral and biochemical techniques, we provide both in vitro and in vivo evidence that the eIF4E-eIF4G complex is more stringently required for plasticity induced by initial learning than for that triggered by reactivation of an existing memory. T he synthesis of new proteins within relevant neuronal circuits is widely agreed to be a basic requirement for long-term memory (LTM) storage. Translation is important for stabilizing active memories because it triggers the production of new proteins that are required for persistent molecular and synaptic changes during both consolidation (after learning) and reconsolidation (after memory reactivation). However, the role of translation in memory formation has been explored only in the context of overall cellular protein translation. There are at least two forms of protein synthesis that could in principle be exploited for either memory consolidation or reconsolidation. The primary mode of translation initiation requires formation of a multiprotein complex of eukaryotic initiation factors (eIFs) bound to the 5′ methylated-GTP cap of target mRNAs (1, 2). Specifically, the interaction between eIF4E and eIF4G facilitates eIF4A RNA helicase activity, recruitment of the 40S ribosomal subunit, scanning, and peptide elongation (3, 4). Molecules that block the formation of eIF4F (eIF4E + eIF4G + eIF4A), such as the endogenous regulator 4E-binding protein, which binds to and sequesters eIF4E, therefore effectively inhibits cap-dependent translation. Likewise, the small molecule, 4EGI-1, which selectively disrupts eIF4E-eIF4G interactions (eIF4F formation) in vitro (5), also inhibits cap-dependent translation. The second route that mRNAs can be translated occurs via internal ribosomal entry sites (IRES), which are unaffected by disruptions to the 5′ cap translation machinery, such as blockade of eIF4E-eIF4G interactions (5). A role for eIF4E-eIF4G interactions during hippocampal synaptic plasticity has been shown (6-8), but they have not yet been demonstrated for memory formation. The ability to dissociate mechanisms of translation control is relevant to the study of associative learning because little is known about the relative roles of cap-dependent and IRES-mediated translation in mammalian brain function. For example, there is evidence that an IRES mediates translation of fragile X mental retardation protein, a protein that is absent in ...

Wide-scale application of biochar to soil has been suggested as a mechanism to offset increases in CO 2 emissions through the long-term sequestration of a carbon rich and inert substance to the soil, but the implications of this for soil diversity and function remain to be determined. Biochar is capable of inducing changes in soil bacterial communities, but the exact impacts of its application are poorly understood. Using three European sites [UK SRC, short rotation coppice, French grassland (FR) and Italian SRF, short rotation forestry (IT)] treated with identical biochar applications, we undertook 16S and ITS amplicon DNA sequencing. In addition, we carried out assessments of community change over time and N and P mobilization in the UK. Significant changes in bacterial and community structure occurred due to treatment, although the nature of the changes varied by site. STAMP differential abundance analysis showed enrichment of Gemmatimonadete and Acidobacteria in UK biochar plots 1 year after application, whilst control plots exhibited enriched Gemmataceae, Isosphaeraceae and Koribacteraceae. Increased mobility of ammonium and phosphates was also detected after 1 year, coupled with a shift from acid to alkaline phosphomonoesterase activity, which may suggest an ecological and functional shift towards a more copiotrophic ecology. Italy also exhibited enrichments, in both the Proteobacteria (driven by an increase in the order Rhizobiales) and the Gemmatimonadetes. No significant change in the abundance of individual taxa was noted in FR, although a small significant change in unweighted UNIFRAC occurred, indicating variation in the identities of taxa present due to treatment. Fungal b diversity was affected by treatment in IT and FR, but was unaffected in UK samples. The effects of time and site were greater than that of biochar application in UK samples. Overall, this report gives a tantalizing view of the soil microbiome at several sites across Europe and suggests that although application of biochar has significant effects on microbial communities, these may be small compared with the highly variable soil microbiome that is found in different soils and changes with time.

Persistent forms of synaptic plasticity are widely thought to require the synthesis of new proteins. This feature of long-lasting forms of plasticity largely has been demonstrated using inhibitors of general protein synthesis, such as either anisomycin or emetine. However, these drugs, which inhibit elongation, cannot address detailed questions about the regulation of translation initiation, where the majority of translational control occurs. Moreover, general protein synthesis inhibitors cannot distinguish between cap-dependent and cap-independent modes of translation initiation. In the present study, we took advantage of two novel compounds, 4EGI-1 and hippuristanol, each of which targets a different component of the eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF)4F initiation complex, and investigated their effects on long-term potentiation (LTP) at CA3-CA1 synapses in the hippocampus. We found that 4EGI-1 and hippuristanol both attenuated long-lasting late-phase LTP induced by two different stimulation paradigms. We also found that 4EGI-1 and hippuristanol each were capable of blocking the expression of newly synthesized proteins immediately after the induction of late-phase LTP. These new pharmacological tools allow for a more precise dissection of the role played by translational control pathways in synaptic plasticity and demonstrate the importance of multiple aspects of eIF4F in processes underlying hippocampal LTP, laying the foundation for future studies investigating the role of eIF4F in hippocampus-dependent memory processes.

CA1 neurons in epileptic animals are vulnerable to selective changes in ion channel expression, called acquired channelopathies, which can increase the excitability of a neuron. Under normal conditions there is a gradient of ion channel expression and intrinsic excitability along the longitudinal, dorsoventral axis of hippocampal area CA1 of the rodent. Many of these channels, including M-channels, GIRK channels and HCN channels, all have dorsoventral expression gradients that might be altered in rodent models of epilepsy. Here, we show that the excitability of dorsal, but not ventral CA1 neurons, had an increased firing rate, reduced interspike interval (ISI) and increased input resistance in a status epilepticus (SE) model of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). As a result, the excitability of CA1 neurons became uniform across the dorsoventral axis of the rat hippocampus post-SE. Using current clamp recordings with pharmacology and immunohistochemistry, we demonstrate that the expression of HCN channels was downregulated in the dorsal CA1 region post-SE, while the expression of M and GIRK channels were unchanged. We did not find this acquired channelopathy in ventral CA1 neurons post-SE. Our results suggest that the excitability of dorsal CA1 neurons post-SE increase to resemble the intrinsic properties of ventral CA1 neurons, which likely makes the hippocampal circuit more permissible to seizures, and contributes to the cognitive impairments associated with chronic epilepsy.