Transforming growth factor b (TGF-b) is an abundant bone matrix protein that influences osteoblast and osteoclast interactions to control bone remodeling. As such, TGF-b represents an obvious pharmacologic target with the potential to regulate both bone formation and resorption to improve bone volume and strength. To investigate the skeletal effect of TGF-b inhibition in vivo, we used an antibody (1D11) specifically directed at all three isoforms of TGF-b. Normal mice were treated with 1D11 or control antibody (4 weeks), and cortical and trabecular bone was assessed by micro-computed tomographic (mCT) scanning. Bone volume and cellular distribution were determined by histomorphometric analysis of vertebrae and long bones. Also, whole-bone strength was assessed biomechanically by three-point bend testing, and tissue-level modulus and composition were analyzed by nanoindentation and Raman microspectroscopy, respectively. TGF-b blockade by 1D11 increased bone mineral density (BMD), trabecular thickness, and bone volume by up to 54%, accompanied by elevated osteoblast numbers and decreased osteoclasts. Biomechanical properties of bone also were enhanced significantly by 1D11 treatment, with increased bending strength and tissue-level modulus. In addition, Raman microspectroscopy demonstrated that 1D11-mediated TGF-b inhibition in the bone environment led to an 11% increase in the mineral-to-collagen ratio of trabecular bone. Together these studies demonstrate that neutralizing TGF-b with 1D11 increases osteoblast numbers while simultaneously decreasing active osteoclasts in the marrow, resulting in a profound increase in bone volume and quality, similar to that seen in parathyroid hormone (PTH)-treated rodent studies. ß

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are capable of processing certain components of bone tissue, including type 1 collagen, a determinant of the biomechanical properties of bone tissue, and they are expressed by osteoclasts and osteoblasts. Therefore, we posit that MMP activity can affect the ability of bone to resist fracture. To explore this possibility, we determined the architectural, compositional, and biomechanical properties of bones from wild-type (WT), Mmp2 À/À , and Mmp9 À/À female mice at 16 weeks of age. MMP-2 and MMP-9have similar substrates but are expressed primarily by osteoblasts and osteoclasts, respectively. Analysis of the trabecular compartment of the tibia metaphysis by micro-computed tomography (mCT) revealed that these MMPs influence trabecular architecture, not volume. Interestingly, the loss of MMP-9 improved the connectivity density of the trabeculae, whereas the loss of MMP-2 reduced this parameter. Similar differential effects in architecture were observed in the L 5 vertebra, but bone volume fraction was lower for both Mmp2 À/À and Mmp9 À/À mice than for WT mice. The mineralization density and mineral-to-collagen ratio, as determined by mCT and Raman microspectroscopy, were lower in the Mmp2 À/À bones than in WT control bones. Whole-bone strength, as determined by three-point bending or compression testing, and tissue-level modulus and hardness, as determined by nanoindentation, were less for Mmp2 À/À than for WT bones. In contrast, the Mmp9 À/À femurs were less tough with lower postyield deflection (more brittle) than the WT femurs. Taken together, this information reveals that MMPs play a complex role in maintaining bone integrity, with the cell type that expresses the MMP likely being a contributing factor to how the enzyme affects bone quality. ß

Background Increasing evidence points to a direct role for altered microRNA (miRNA or miR) expression levels in cardiovascular remodeling and disease progression. While alterations in miR expression levels have been directly linked to cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, and remodeling, their role in regulating gene expression during thoracic aortic aneurysm (TAA) development has yet to be explored. Methods and Results The present study examined miR expression levels in aortic tissue specimens collected from patients with ascending TAAs by quantitative real-time PCR, and observed decreased miR expression (miRs -1, -21, -29a, -133a, and -486) as compared to normal aortic specimens. A significant relationship between miR expression levels (miRs -1, -21, -29a, and -133a) and aortic diameter was identified; as aortic diameter increased, miR expression decreased. Using a bioinformatics approach, members of the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) family, proteins involved in TAA development, were examined for putative miR binding sites. MMP-2 and MMP-9 were identified as potential targets for miR-29a and miR-133a respectively, and MMP-2 was subsequently verified as a miR-29a target in vitro. A significant inverse relationship between miR-29a and total MMP-2 was then identified in the clinical TAA specimens. Conclusions These findings demonstrate altered miR expression patterns in clinical TAA specimens, suggesting that the loss of specific miR expression may allow for the elaboration of specific MMPs capable of driving aortic remodeling during TAA development. Importantly, these data suggest that these miRs have biological and clinical relevance to the behavior of TAAs, and may provide significant targets for therapeutic and diagnostic applications.

The full range of fracture risk determinants arise from each hierarchical level comprising the organization of bone. Raman spectroscopy is one tool capable of characterizing the collagen and mineral phases at a near sub-micron length scale, but the ability of Raman spectra to distinguish compositional differences of bone is not well defined. Therefore, we analyzed multiple Raman peak intensities and peak ratios to characterize their ability to distinguish between the typically less mineralized osteonal tissue and the more mineralized interstitial tissue in intra-cortical human bone. To further assess origins of variance, we collected Raman spectra from embedded specimens and for 2 orientations of cut. Per specimen, Raman peak intensities or ratios were averaged among multiple sites within 5 osteons and 5 neighboring interstitial tissue. The peak ratios of ν1 phosphate (PO4) to Proline or Amide III detected the highest increases of 15.4% or 12.5%, respectively, in composition from osteonal to interstitial tissue. The coefficient of variance (COV) was less than 5% for each as opposed to a COV of ∼8% for the traditional ν1PO4/Amide I, a peak ratio that varied the most between transverse and longitudinal cuts for each tissue type. Although embedding affected Raman peaks, it did not obscure differences in most peak ratios related to mineralization between the 2 tissue types. In studies with limited sample size but sufficient number of Raman spectra per specimen for spatial averaging, ν1PO4/Amide III or ν1PO4/Proline is the Raman property that is most likely to detect a compositional difference between experimental groups.

Mouse RPE cells express and secrete CFB sufficient to promote RPE damage and CNV. This further supports that local complement production may regulate disease processes; however, the reconstitution experiments suggest that additional components may be sequestered from the bloodstream. Understanding the process of ocular complement production and regulation will further our understanding of the AMD disease process and the requirements of a complement-based therapeutic.