Studies in embryonic development have guided successful efforts to direct the differentiation of human embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) into specific organ cell types in vitro 1,2. For example, human PSCs have been differentiated into monolayer cultures of liver hepatocytes and pancreatic endocrine cells3–6 that have therapeutic efficacy in animal models of liver disease 7,8 and diabetes 9 respectively. However the generation of complex three-dimensional organ tissues in vitro remains a major challenge for translational studies. We have established a robust and efficient process to direct the differentiation of human PSCs into intestinal tissue in vitro using a temporal series of growth factor manipulations to mimic embryonic intestinal development 10 (Summarized in supplementary Fig. 1). This involved activin-induced definitive endoderm (DE) formation 11, FGF/Wnt induced posterior endoderm pattering, hindgut specification and morphogenesis 12–14; and a pro-intestinal culture system 15,16 to promote intestinal growth, morphogenesis and cytodifferentiation. The resulting three-dimensional intestinal “organoids” consisted of a polarized, columnar epithelium that was patterned into villus-like structures and crypt-like proliferative zones that expressed intestinal stem cell markers17. The epithelium contained functional enterocytes, as well as goblet, Paneth, and enteroendocrine cells. Using this culture system as a model to study human intestinal development, we identified that the combined activity of Wnt3a and FGF4 is required for hindgut specification whereas FGF4 alone is sufficient to promote hindgut morphogenesis. Our data suggests that human intestinal stem cells form de novo during development. Lastly we determined that NEUROG3, a pro-endocrine transcription factor that is mutated in enteric anendocrinosis 18, is both necessary and sufficient for human enteroendocrine cell development in vitro. In conclusion, PSC-derived human intestinal tissue should allow for unprecedented studies of human intestinal development and disease.
Background Human papillomavirus (HPV) positive cases of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN) have a much better disease outcome compared to SCCHN cases lacking HPVs. Differences in microRNA (miRNA) expression may affect their clinical outcomes. Methods miRNA expression was studied using microarrays and quantitative RT-PCR in HPV-16 positive and HPV-negative SCCHN cell lines. The role of HPV-16 E6 and E7 oncogenes in altering miRNA expression was investigated using human foreskin keratinocytes (HFKs). Results MiRNAs miR-363, miR-33 and miR-497 were upregulated while miR-155, miR-181a, miR-181b, miR-29a, miR-218, miR-222, miR-221 and miR-142-5p were downregulated in HPV-positive cells compared to both HPV-negative SCCHN and normal oral keratinocytes. HPV-16 E6 oncogene altered miRNA expression in HFKs and in an HPV-16 positive cell line with E6 knockdown using siRNA. Conclusions MiRNAs differentially expressed in the presence of HPV-16 may provide biomarkers for SCCHN and identify cellular pathways targeted by this virus.
Fanconi anemia (FA) is a recessive genome instability syndrome characterized by heightened cellular sensitivity to DNA damage, aplastic anemia and cancer susceptibility. Leukemias and squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) are the most predominant FA associated cancers, with the latter exhibiting markedly early disease onset and aggressiveness. While studies of hematopoietic cells derived from FA patients have provided much insight into bone marrow deficiencies and leukemogenesis, molecular transforming events in FA deficient keratinocytes, which are the cell type of origin for SCC, are poorly understood. We describe here the growth and molecular properties of FANCA-deficient versus FANCA-corrected, HPV E6/E7 immortalized keratinocytes in monolayer and organotypic epithelial raft culture. In response to DNA damage, FANCA-deficient patient-derived keratinocyte cultures displayed a G2/M phase arrest, senescence and apoptosis. Organotypic raft cultures exhibited DNA repair associated defects with more 53BP1 foci and TUNEL positive cells over their corrected counterparts. Interestingly, together with reduced rates of DNA damage, FA correction resulted in a marked decrease in epithelial thickness and the presence of fewer cell layers. The observed FANCA mediated suppression of hyperplasia correlated with the detection of fewer cells transiting through the cell cycle in the absence of gross differentiation abnormalities or apoptotic differences. Importantly, the knockdown of either FANCA or FANCD2 in HPV positive keratinocytes was sufficient for increasing epithelial hyperplasia. Our findings support a new role for FA pathways in the maintenance of differentiation-dependent cell cycle exit, with the implication that FA deficiencies may contribute to the high risk of FA patients for developing HPV-associated SCC.
The human papillomavirus (HPV) 16 E7 oncoprotein has been reported previously to stimulate DNA damage and to activate host cell DNA damage checkpoints. How HPV-16 E7 maintains proliferation despite activated DNA damage checkpoints is incompletely understood. Here, we provide evidence that cells expressing the HPV-16 E7 oncoprotein can enter mitosis in the presence of DNA damage. We show that this activity of HPV-16 E7 involves attenuation of DNA damage checkpoint control by accelerating the proteolytic turnover of claspin. Claspin mediates the activation of CHK1 by ATR in response to replication stress, and its degradation plays a critical role in DNA damage checkpoint recovery. Expression of a nondegradable mutant of claspin was shown to inhibit mitotic entry in HPV-16 E7-expressing cells. Multiple components of the SCF B-TrCP -based claspin degradation machinery were found deregulated in the presence of HPV-16 E7, including cullin 1, B-TrCP, Aurora A, and Polo-like kinase-1 (PLK1). In contrast, no difference in the expression level of the claspin deubiquitinating enzyme USP7 was detected. Levels of Aurora A and PLK1 as well as phosphorylated PLK1 at threonine 210, a prerequisite for DNA damage checkpoint recovery, remained detectable following replication stress in HPV-16 E7-expressing cells but not in control cells. In summary, our results suggest that the HPV-16 E7 oncoprotein alleviates DNA damage checkpoint responses and promotes mitotic entry by accelerating claspin degradation through a mechanism that involves deregulation of components of the SCF B-TrCP -based claspin degradation machinery. [Cancer Res 2009;69(17):7022-9]
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