Drought is a natural phenomenon that occurs due to low rainfall. Drought has a slow onset character, but its effects are far-reaching. With climate change, drought events are increasing in frequency and intensity. Drought in Indonesia is related to the natural phenomena of El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD). Agriculture is the sector most affected by the drought. Drought can damage food crops and ultimately threaten food security. In the last decade, there have been two severe droughts, namely in 2015 and 2019. This study aimed to assess the impact of the droughts in 2015 and 2019 on rice agriculture in Java, Indonesia's main food barn. The Standardized Precipitation Evaporation Index expresses the dryness level with a time-scale of 3 months (SPEI-3) and 6 months (SPEI-6). The level of the drought was mapped to see its spatial distribution using the gaussian krigging interpolation method. The impact of drought is expressed in the area of agricultural rice land affected by drought by province. The evaluation results show that the 2015 drought had the lowest SPEI-3 value of -2.06 in September 2015, and the lowest SPEI-6 value of -1.52 occurred in January 2016. The rice agriculture land affected by drought throughout 2015 was around 246 thousand hectares. The 2019 drought lasted longer because it started in the middle of 2018. The lowest SPEI-3 value of -2.06 occurred in August 2019, and the lowest SPEI-6 value of -1.96 occurred in October 2019. The drought impacted around 120 thousand and 223 thousand hectares of rice land in 2018 and 2019, respectively. The results of the SPEI value mapping indicate that the eastern part of Java Island is experiencing a more severe drought than the western part. However, the impact of the drought on rice agriculture is more significant in the west. It indicated that the western part of Java Island is an area that is prone to drought, while the eastern part is more resilient to drought disasters.

The island of Java as the center of activity in Indonesia is experiencing uncontrolled urbanization and industrialization. Urbanization and industrialization are sources of air pollution and increases in air temperature, which can increase the risk of health problems for humans and reduce the comfort level of the city. The assessment of the comfort level based on air temperature uses an outdoor thermal comfort (OTC) index, namely universal thermal climate index (UTCI) and physiological equivalent temperature (PET) as well as air quality assessment based on Air Quality Guideline (AQG) criteria. This study focuses on assessing the comfort level of cities in Java based on the relationship between temperature and air quality human health levels in 2015 to 2019, in 10 cities, namely Jakarta, Bandung, Surabaya, Semarang, Tasikmalaya, Malang, Surakarta, Yogyakarta, Cilegon, and Tegal. The technique used is narrative review, recapitulation of secondary data sources from remote sensing and health data. The year 2019 was classified as extreme because there were indications of strong heat stress in 9 cities based on UTCI criteria and there were 3 cities classified as strong heat stress based on PET criteria. The PM2.5 concentration in Malang and Surabaya is at an unsafe level, while the CO concentration is safe based on the AQG. The recapitulation of health data shows an increase in cases of acute respiratory infections (ARI) in Malang, Jakarta, and Tasikmalaya cities which is in line with the trend of data on increasing air temperature and PM2.5 concentrations.