We tested the hypothesis that elephant distribution inside the Nazinga Game Ranch (Southern Burkina Faso) during the wet season is influenced by villages outside, while in the dry season elephants are restricted only by water. Occupancy was evaluated by recording elephant dungpiles on 54 line transects in each of three seasons: wet 2006, dry 2007 and dry 2008. We measured the distance of each transect from nearest villages, nearest permanent water sources, nearest guard posts and tourist camps. The results were unexpected: elephant occupancy in the wet season was independent of villages but influenced by poaching, while their occupancy in both dry seasons was determined by the proximity of villages as well as water. In the dry season, elephants were attracted to villages by grain stores and fruiting trees. There has been a dramatic shift in the dry season distribution of elephants, and consequently in browsing pressure, over the last two decades. We suggest that this change is a consequence of the expansion of human activities outside the ranch. This study shows that the effects of growing human disturbance on elephant populations in small protected areas are not predictable. Correcting for spatial autocorrelation had a negligible effect upon the models. RésuméNous avons testé l'hypothèse selon laquelle la distribution des éléphants dans le Ranch de Gibier de Nazinga (dans le sud du Burkina Faso) était influencée, durant la saison des pluies, par des villages situés à l'extérieur, tandis que, en saison sèche, les éléphants ne sont limités que par l'eau. On a évalué l'occupation en enregistrant les tas de crottes d'éléphant sur 54 transects linéaires pendant trois saisons: saison pluvieuse 2006, saison sèche 2007 et saison sèche 2008. Nous avons mesuré la distance entre chaque transect par rapport aux villages les plus proches, les points d'eau les plus proches, les postes de gardes et les camps de touristes les plus proches. Les résultats furent inattendus : l'occupation des éléphants en saison des pluies ne dépendait pas des villages mais plutôt du braconnage alors que pendant les deux saisons sèches, leur taux d'occupation était déterminé par la proximité des villages et de l'eau. En saison sèche, les éléphants étaient attirés vers les villages par les stocks de grain et les arbres qui fructifiaient. Il y a eu un spectaculaire changement de la distribution saisonnière des éléphants, et par conséquent la pression de broutage en saison sèche, au cours des deux dernières décennies. Nous suggérons que ce changement est une conséquence de l'expansion des activités humaines hors du ranch. Cette étude montre que les effets des croissantes perturbations humaines sur les populations d'éléphants dans de petites aires protégées ne sont pas prévisibles. Le fait d'apporter une correction pour l'autocorrélation spatiale n'avait qu'un effet négligeable sur les modèles.

The dearth of ecological data from protected areas at relevant scales challenges conservation practice in West Africa. We conducted the first camera survey for Burkina Faso and Niger to elucidate interactions between resource users and mammals in the largest protected area complex in West Africa (W‐Arly‐Pendjari, WAP). We differentiated direct (e.g., poaching) and indirect (e.g., domestic animals) human activities to determine their effects on species richness, composition, and behavior. Livestock was the dominant human pressure while gathering was the most prevalent direct human activity. Human pressure did not influence species richness or composition, but reduced mammal activity with greater consequences from indirect activities. We also found distinct differences among guilds in their behavioral responses to human pressures as wild ungulates exhibited the greatest sensitivities to livestock presence. Our findings, that aggregated socioecological data, transition the WAP complex from the singular mandate of nature conservation to a dynamic coupled human‐natural ecosystem.

Bushmeat consumption in large Sub-Saharan African cities is perceived as a major 24 threat to the conservation of many species because their considerable population sizes can 25 generate a significant demand for bushmeat. The study of the effect of age, sex and 26 geographic location in bushmeat eating in African cities may offer valuable insights on which 27 population groups to target in behaviour change campaigns. Using 2,040 interviews in six 28 West African cities from four countries, in forest and savannah settings, we analysed the 29 differences between age and sex in people's frequency of bushmeat consumption. Overall, we 30 found similar patterns in all sampled cities. As many as 62.2 % males and 72.1% females 31 replied that they 'would not eat bushmeat at all', though only 12.8% males and 8.8% females 32 mentioned they regularly ate bushmeat. Younger generations of both sexes answered that they 33 'would never eat bushmeat' more often than older age groups, independently of their city of 34 origin. These trends are encouraging though further research needs to be undertaken to find 35 out whether bushmeat volumes consumed in cities are unsustainable and having a serious 36 impact of prey populations.37

The meat of wild animals (bushmeat) is consumed extensively in many tropical regions. Over the past few decades bushmeat consumption has greatly increased, threatening the survival of some hunted species and the supply of animal protein to countless numbers of people. Understanding patterns of bushmeat consumption is thus vital to ensure the sustainable use of this resource. Although the economic drivers of bushmeat consumption has been well studied, non-wealth correlates have been poorly considered. Here, we analyse how factors such as age and gender influence bushmeat consumption in four West African countries, within the Guinean forests (Togo and Nigeria) and Sahel (Burkina Faso and Niger). We interviewed a total of 2,453 persons (1,253 urban, 1,200 in rural areas) to determine frequency of consumption of bushmeat as well as main species eaten. We found significant differences in bushmeat consumption between rural and urban areas in all four countries. In particular, the proportion of persons not consuming any bushmeat was highest in urban areas. Gender differences in bushmeat consumption was not generally important but young people consistently avoided eating bushmeat, especially in Togo and Nigeria, and in urban areas. The complicated interplay between tradition and evolution of social systems (especially the trends towards westernization) may explain the different perceptions that people may have towards consuming bushmeat in the four studied countries. In addition, we found considerable variation in types of bushmeat eaten, with antelopes and large rodents eaten by the great majority of interviewees, but bats, monkeys, and snakes being avoided, especially in urban settlements.

To explore the patterns of bushmeat trade in the Sahel we carried out a multidisciplinary study, focusing on Burkina Faso. We conducted baseline interview surveys to examine the variation in people's perceptions of bushmeat in relation to their place of residence (urban vs rural), sex and age. We also analysed the long-term (1985–2010) population dynamics of two ungulate species, the oribi Ourebia ourebi and the common duiker Sylvicapra grimmia, known to be among the main targets of the bushmeat trade locally. For the antelopes we chose as our study area a protected area (Nazinga Game Ranch) where poaching activities occur and are likely to represent a threat to the local wildlife. The results of the interviews underlined significant differences in bushmeat consumption between rural and urban areas. In particular, the probability of finding people who did not consume bushmeat increased in the urban area, where bushmeat is less available than in the rural areas. Sex and age did not have any effect on people's perceptions of bushmeat. In Burkina Faso bushmeat is still widely consumed, and this could be because the bushmeat trade is poorly controlled, with a lack of enforcement of the legislation. Long-term field surveys revealed that the oribi and the common duiker have declined significantly in Nazinga Game Ranch, suggesting that the bushmeat trade in Burkina Faso may have negative consequences in terms of the conservation outlook for these species.