The development of nitrogen-fixing nodules in legumes is induced by perception of lipochitin-oligosaccharide signals secreted by a bacterial symbiont. Nitrogen (N) starvation is a prerequisite for the formation, development, and function of root nodules, and high levels of combined N in the form of nitrate or ammonium can completely abolish nodule formation. We distinguished between nitrate and ammonium inhibitory effects by identifying when and where these combined N sources interfere with the Nod-factor-induced pathway. Furthermore, we present a small-scale analysis of the expression profile, under different N conditions, of recently identified genes involved in the Nod-factor-induced pathway. In the presence of high levels of nitrate or ammonium, the NIN gene fails to be induced 24 h after the addition of Nod factor compared with plants grown under N-free conditions. This induction is restored in the hypernodulating nitrate-tolerant har1-3 mutant only in the presence of 10 and 20 mM KNO3. These results were confirmed in Lotus plants inoculated with Mesorhizobium loti. NIN plays a key role in the nodule organogenesis program and its downregulation may represent a crucial event in the nitrate-dependent pathway leading to the inhibition of nodule organogenesis.

(M.B., A.M.) Ammonium is a primary source of nitrogen for plants. In legume plants ammonium can also be obtained by symbiotic nitrogen fixation, and NH 1 4 is also a regulator of early and late symbiotic interaction steps. Ammonium transporters are likely to play important roles in the control of nodule formation as well as in nitrogen assimilation. Two new genes, LjAMT1;2 and LjAMT1;3, were cloned from Lotus japonicus. Both were able to complement the growth defect of a yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) ammonium transport mutant. Measurement of [ 14 C]methylammonium uptake rates and competition experiments revealed that each transporter had a high affinity for NH 1 4 . The K i for ammonium was 1.7, 3, and 15 mM for LjAMT1;1, 1;2, and 1;3, respectively. Real-time PCR revealed higher expression of LjAMT1;1, 1;2, and 1;3 genes in leaves than in roots and nodule, with expression levels decreasing in the order LjAMT1;1 [ 1;2 [ 1;3 except in flowers, in which LjAMT1;3 was expressed at higher level than in leaves, and LjAMT1;1 showed the lowest level of expression. Expression of LjAMT1;1 and 1;2 in roots was induced by nitrogen deprivation. Expression of LjAMT1;1 was repressed in leaves exposed to elevated CO 2 concentrations, which also suppress photorespiration. Tissue and cellular localization of LjAMT1 genes expression, using promoter-b-glucuronidase and in situ RNA hybridization approaches, revealed distinct cellular spatial localization in different organs, including nodules, suggesting differential roles in the nitrogen metabolism of these organs.